GS Notes

1.4 - Society Notes 05

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Elaborate Notes

Women Issues

  • Concept of Gender

    • Gender is a socio-cultural construct that differentiates roles, responsibilities, constraints, opportunities, and privileges of individuals based on their perceived sex. It is distinct from sex, which refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define humans as male or female.
    • The assertion “You are not born with gender, you do gender” echoes the post-structuralist feminist theory, particularly Judith Butler’s concept of gender performativity in her work “Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity” (1990). Butler argues that gender is not a stable identity but an identity instituted through a “stylized repetition of acts.” It is a performance that individuals are socialized into enacting.
    • Manifestations of Gender:
      • Individual Level: Gender forms a core part of an individual’s self-identity (e.g., identifying as male, female, transgender, non-binary). This identity is shaped through socialization processes from childhood.
      • Cultural Level: Gender profoundly shapes societal norms, values, beliefs, and aspirations. For instance, cultures may associate masculinity with traits like aggression and ambition, and femininity with nurturing and submissiveness. These cultural norms dictate acceptable behaviours for men and women.
      • Structural Level: At the societal level, gender forms the basis for the division of labour, power, and resources. This is most evident in the public/private sphere dichotomy, where men have historically dominated the public sphere (politics, economy) and women have been relegated to the private sphere (household, caregiving).

  • Impact of Gender Stereotyping on the Social Position of Women

    • Gender stereotypes are oversimplified and widely held beliefs about the characteristics and roles of men and women. These stereotypes limit individual potential and perpetuate inequality.
    • Stereotype: Women are caring and nurturing.
      • Impact: This stereotype leads to the association of women with ‘unpaid care work’ (cooking, cleaning, child-rearing). This work, while essential for societal functioning, is economically invisible and undervalued. This leads to the “feminization of poverty” as women’s economic contributions are not formally recognized. It also restricts their mobility and participation in the public sphere, confining them to the domestic space.
    • Stereotype: Women possess soft skills.
      • Impact: This results in occupational segregation, where women are channeled into specific jobs deemed “suitable” for their perceived nature. These are often called ‘pink-collar jobs’, which typically offer lower wages, less prestige, and fewer opportunities for advancement than male-dominated professions. Examples include nursing, primary school teaching, air hostess roles, and human resources.
    • Stereotype: Women are emotional and incapable of making rational decisions.
      • Impact: This pervasive stereotype creates significant barriers to women’s leadership and career progression.
        • The Glass Ceiling: This is a metaphor for the invisible but unbreakable barrier that keeps women from rising to the upper rungs of the corporate or political ladder, regardless of their qualifications or achievements. The term was popularized by Marilyn Loden in 1978.
        • The Glass Cliff: Coined by British researchers Michelle K. Ryan and Alexander Haslam (2005), this phenomenon describes the trend of women being more likely to be appointed to leadership positions in times of crisis or downturn, when the risk of failure is highest. If they fail, it reinforces the stereotype of their incompetence; if they succeed, their success is often attributed to luck or external factors.

  • Patriarchy

    • Patriarchy is a social system where men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property. Feminist scholar Sylvia Walby in “Theorizing Patriarchy” (1990) defined it as “a system of social structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress and exploit women.”
    • Patriarchal Bargain: The term was coined by Turkish author and academic Deniz Kandiyoti (1988). It describes the strategy wherein a woman chooses to accommodate and accept gender-unequal norms, thereby gaining security and status, while simultaneously upholding the very system that subjugates women. An example is a mother-in-law perpetuating regressive norms on her daughter-in-law to maintain her own authority within the patriarchal family structure.
    • Patriarchy is not a monolithic or static concept. Its nature and intensity have evolved historically and vary significantly across different cultures, classes, castes, and religions. The experience of a Dalit woman in a rural setting is vastly different from that of an upper-caste urban woman.

  • Structure of Patriarchy

    • The Family: As the primary unit of socialization, the family is where the first lessons of patriarchy are imparted. This is done through differential socialization, such as assigning pink to girls and blue to boys, giving dolls to girls (promoting nurturing roles) and cars to boys (promoting activity and mobility). The prevalence of patrilineal (inheritance through the male line) and patrilocal (bride resides with the groom’s family) systems inherently diminishes the status of a girl child, often viewing her as ‘Paraya Dhan’ (someone else’s wealth), an economic liability to be married off.
    • Knowledge System (Education & Media):
      • Education System: Patriarchal ideology is often embedded in the formal curriculum (‘hidden curriculum’), with textbooks frequently portraying women in stereotypical domestic roles and men in professional ones. The prejudiced attitudes of teachers can further reinforce these biases. A structural issue like the lack of separate and functional toilets in schools is a major reason for high dropout rates among adolescent girls, as documented by various ASER reports.
      • Media: The media acts as a powerful agent in perpetuating patriarchy.
        • Glorification of Toxic Masculinity: Films like ‘Kabir Singh’ and ‘Animal’ have been criticized for normalizing and glorifying male aggression, possessiveness, and control over women.
        • Damsel in Distress Trope: This recurring narrative element portrays women as weak, helpless figures who need a male hero for rescue, reinforcing gender stereotypes.
        • Objectification and Commodification: As argued by feminist film theorist Laura Mulvey in “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema” (1975), the ‘male gaze’ in cinema often presents women as passive objects of male desire. This is rampant in advertising (e.g., using scantily clad women to sell products like deodorants), which commodifies the female body.
    • Symbolism and Ideological Indoctrination: Patriarchy is sustained through subtle ideological means that create and romanticize the image of a self-sacrificing, ideal woman (e.g., the ever-devoted wife in television serials). This creates a powerful cultural notion of ‘ideal womanhood’ that women are pressured to conform to.
    • Role of Religion:
      • Historically, religious texts and institutions have often been interpreted to legitimize male authority and female subordination. Personal laws concerning marriage, divorce, and inheritance in various religions often disadvantage women (e.g., the practice of Triple Talaq, now criminalized in India; prohibitions on women entering certain religious spaces like Sabarimala temple).
      • French existentialist philosopher Simone de Beauvoir in “The Second Sex” (1949) argued that religion often acts as an instrument of deception, offering women illusory rewards in the afterlife in exchange for their submission on Earth.
      • The ‘Devi-Dasi Dichotomy’, a term used by scholars like Beena Das, highlights the paradoxical Indian context where female goddesses (Devi) are worshipped, while mortal women (Dasi - servant/slave) are often denied basic rights, dignity, and agency.
    • Caste:
      • Caste and patriarchy are deeply intertwined in the Indian context. As Dr. B.R. Ambedkar argued in his 1916 paper “Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development,” the caste system is maintained through the practice of endogamy (marriage within one’s own caste), which necessitates strict control over women’s sexuality to maintain caste purity.
      • Feminist historian Uma Chakravarti, in her work “Gendering Caste: Through a Feminist Lens” (2003), coined the term ‘Brahmanical patriarchy’. This refers to the specific model of patriarchy in India where caste and gender hierarchies are mutually reinforcing. The notions of purity and pollution, central to the caste system, are extended to women’s bodies. This manifests in restrictions on pratiloma marriages (marriage of a lower-caste man with a higher-caste woman), which are seen as a grave threat to the caste hierarchy.
      • Caste determines not only the ‘social division of labour’ but also the ‘sexual division of labour’, dictating what kind of work is appropriate for women of different castes.

  • Patriarchy Vis-a-vis Work

    • While globalization, rising living costs, and education have increased female labour force participation, patriarchy has proven resilient. It has adapted rather than disappeared. Women’s entry into the workforce has not necessarily liberated them from domestic duties, leading to the ‘dual burden’ (or ‘second shift’) of managing both professional and household responsibilities. The fundamental structures that assign care work primarily to women remain largely unchallenged.

Women in Agriculture

  • Statistics

    • Oxfam Report (“Sowing the Seeds of Change”): Over 80% of rural women in India are engaged in agriculture, yet they own less than 13% of the land. They perform about 80% of all farm work and 90% of dairy-related work.
    • Agriculture Census (2015-16): The share of female operational landholders in the country increased from 12.79% in 2010-11 to 13.87% in 2015-16, which is approximately 14%.
    • Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): If women had the same access to productive resources as men, they could increase yields on their farms by 20-30%, which could raise total agricultural output in developing countries by 2.5-4%.
    • Wage Disparity: Various studies indicate a significant gender wage gap in agriculture, with some estimates like the one cited pointing to a disparity of approximately 35.8%.
    • Corteva Agriscience Report (2018): Surveying women in 17 countries, this report found that 78% of women in Indian agriculture believe there is gender discrimination, and 60% find it difficult to succeed in the field.

  • Feminization of Agriculture

    • This term refers to the measurable increase in women’s participation in the agricultural labour force and the growing proportion of women in farm management roles, often due to the out-migration of men.
    • Causes:
      • Economic Factors: Male-specific rural-to-urban migration for non-farm jobs leaves women to manage the farms. The agrarian crisis and lack of profitability push men to seek alternative livelihoods. The prevalence of small and marginal landholdings (86% as per Agri Census 2015-16) makes hiring external labour unaffordable, increasing reliance on unpaid family labour, primarily from women. Women are also seen as a source of cheap labour for agricultural wage work.
      • Socio-cultural Factors: The patriarchal setup gives women low bargaining power, making them a pliable and easily exploitable labour force. Due to their confinement to the village, farm work is culturally accepted and allows them to manage the ‘dual burden’ of farm and household work simultaneously. The tragic issue of farmer suicides also often forces widows to take over farm responsibilities.

  • Impact of Feminization of Agriculture

    • Positive Impacts:
      • Empowerment: Can lead to increased financial autonomy and decision-making power within the household.
      • Skill Development: Provides opportunities for developing entrepreneurship and leadership skills through farming and allied activities.
      • Agent of Change: Economically empowered women are more likely to invest in their children’s health, nutrition, and education, leading to better human development outcomes.
      • Changing Perceptions: Over time, their role as primary cultivators may shift the perception of women from being an economic liability to a valuable asset.
    • Challenges (“Feminization of Agrarian Distress”):
      • Lack of Ownership: With only about 14% of landholdings, most women work as labourers on family land they do not own, limiting their agency and access to benefits.
      • Lack of Access to Resources:
        • Credit: Without land titles, women cannot access institutional credit like the Kisan Credit Card (KCC). They are forced to rely on exploitative informal moneylenders.
        • Technology: Farm machinery is often designed for male users, leading to increased drudgery for women (often called ‘masculinisation of technology’).
        • Markets & Extension: Women farmers often lack access to markets and are excluded from Agricultural Extension Services, which provide crucial information on modern farming techniques, seeds, and market prices. Only a small fraction (around 5%) of women have access to these services.
      • Decision-Making: Despite managing the farm, major decisions (crop selection, sale of produce) are often made by male family members, even those who have migrated.
      • Increased Workload: They face an intensified dual burden of managing the farm, the household, and caregiving, leading to severe time poverty and health issues.

Prelims Pointers

  • Gender: A social construct, distinct from biological sex.
  • Gender Performativity: Concept associated with Judith Butler, stating gender is an identity enacted through a repetition of acts.
  • Pink-Collar Jobs: Jobs stereotypically held by women (e.g., Nurse, HR, Teacher).
  • Glass Ceiling: An invisible barrier preventing women from reaching top leadership positions.
  • Glass Cliff: A phenomenon where women are appointed to leadership roles during times of crisis with a high risk of failure. Associated with researchers Michelle Ryan and Alexander Haslam.
  • Patriarchy: A social system where men hold primary power and dominate social structures.
  • Patriarchal Bargain: A concept by Deniz Kandiyoti where women accept gender-unequal norms for security and status.
  • Patrilineal: Tracing kinship and inheritance through the male line.
  • Patrilocal: A post-marital residence pattern where a couple settles in the husband’s home or community.
  • Simone de Beauvoir: Author of “The Second Sex” (1949); argued religion can be an instrument of female subjugation.
  • Beena Das: Scholar associated with the concept of the ‘Devi-Dasi Dichotomy’ in the Indian context.
  • Uma Chakravarti: Feminist historian who coined the term ‘Brahmanical Patriarchy’.
  • Pratiloma Marriage: A marriage where a lower-caste man marries a higher-caste woman, traditionally forbidden.
  • Feminization of Agriculture: A measurable increase in women’s participation in the agricultural sector.
  • Statistics (Women in Agriculture):
    • Over 80% of rural women are engaged in agriculture (Oxfam).
    • Women own approx. 14% of agricultural land holdings (Agriculture Census 2015-16).
    • A significant gender wage gap exists in agriculture, around 35.8%.
    • Equal access to resources for women could increase agricultural productivity by up to 4% (FAO).
  • Agricultural Extension Services: Services providing farmers with information on technology, market trends, pest management, etc.

Mains Insights

GS Paper I (Indian Society):

  1. Intersectionality of Gender: The experience of being a woman in India is not uniform. It is shaped by the intersection of gender with other social hierarchies like caste, class, religion, and region. An analysis of ‘women’s issues’ must be intersectional, recognizing that a Dalit woman farmer faces a different set of challenges than an upper-caste urban professional woman.
  2. Patriarchy: Continuity and Change: While constitutional provisions and social reforms have challenged traditional patriarchal structures, patriarchy has shown remarkable adaptability. The entry of women into the workforce has not dismantled patriarchy but has led to new forms of negotiation and control, such as the ‘dual burden’ and the ‘glass ceiling’. Critically analyze whether economic empowerment automatically translates to social empowerment.
  3. Feminization of Agriculture - A Double-Edged Sword: This phenomenon can be viewed as both an opportunity for empowerment and a symptom of agrarian distress. While it gives women greater visibility and role in agriculture, it often manifests as the “feminization of agrarian distress,” where they are left to manage failing farms with limited resources, ownership, and decision-making power.

GS Paper II (Social Justice & Governance):

  1. Policy Blindness: Many agricultural policies (e.g., credit, subsidies, insurance) are designed with a male farmer as the default beneficiary. The lack of land titles in women’s names excludes them from these schemes. There is a need for ‘gender-responsive budgeting’ and policy-making that recognizes women as primary farmers.
  2. Role of Institutions: Self-Help Groups (SHGs) have emerged as powerful tools for the economic and social empowerment of rural women. Schemes like the National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) leverage these groups to deliver credit, skills, and market access. Strengthening these institutions is crucial.
  3. Achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Gender inequality is a major impediment to achieving several SDGs, particularly SDG 5 (Gender Equality), SDG 1 (No Poverty), SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), and SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities). Empowering women in agriculture is directly linked to improving food security, reducing poverty, and fostering inclusive growth.

GS Paper III (Indian Economy & Agriculture):

  1. Unlocking Economic Potential: The undervaluation and non-recognition of women’s unpaid care work and farm labour leads to an inaccurate estimation of the GDP. Recognizing and supporting women farmers—through land rights, credit, and technology—is not just a matter of social justice but a crucial strategy for boosting agricultural productivity and invigorating the rural economy, as suggested by the FAO.
  2. Technological Imperative: There is a need to promote the development and dissemination of gender-friendly farm tools and technologies that reduce drudgery and increase efficiency for women farmers. Startups and agricultural research institutions should focus on this area.
  3. Land Rights and Economic Security: The debate over land rights for women is central to their economic security. Land is a critical asset that provides access to credit, social status, and bargaining power. Legal and social reforms are needed to ensure women’s inheritance and ownership rights are protected and enforced.

GS Paper IV (Ethics, Integrity, and Aptitude):

  1. Ethical Dimensions of Stereotyping: Gender stereotyping is ethically wrong as it denies individuals their right to self-determination and judges them based on preconceived notions rather than their individual capabilities and character. It violates the principle of human dignity.
  2. The ‘Patriarchal Bargain’ as an Ethical Dilemma: This concept presents a complex ethical dilemma. From a utilitarian perspective, a woman’s choice to conform might maximize her personal security in a hostile environment. However, from a deontological standpoint, in doing so, she becomes complicit in perpetuating an unjust system that harms women as a collective.
  3. Emotional Intelligence in Governance: The stereotype that women are ‘emotional’ and ‘irrational’ is often used to exclude them from leadership. However, emotional intelligence—the ability to understand and manage one’s own and others’ emotions—is a key attribute of effective leadership. Civil servants must demonstrate high emotional intelligence to be empathetic and responsive to the needs of all sections of society, including women.

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