GS Notes

1.4 - Society Notes 08

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Elaborate Notes

DIVERSITY

  • Defining Diversity: Diversity refers to the existence of variations of different characteristics in a group of people. In the context of Indian society, it encompasses the collective differences among groups based on language, religion, caste, region, culture, and livelihood. These differences are not merely statistical variations but form the basis of distinct social identities.

  • Deprivation and its Triggers: Every individual’s social standing and well-being are profoundly influenced by two interconnected aspects: culture (which includes identity, values, and social status) and livelihood (economic opportunities and material well-being). When a group faces discrimination or domination in either or both of these spheres, it leads to a state of objective deprivation. However, this objective condition does not automatically translate into social or political action.

  • The Theory of Relative Deprivation: The transition from passive suffering to active resentment and mobilization is explained by the concept of relative deprivation. This occurs when a ‘third-party intervention’ introduces a new perspective or knowledge, leading to a ‘subjective realisation of objective reality.’ This theory, explored by sociologists like Samuel A. Stouffer during his research for The American Soldier (1949) and later refined by Robert K. Merton in Social Theory and Social Structure (1957), posits that people feel deprived not in absolute terms, but in relation to a reference group or a perceived standard of what they are entitled to.

    • Third-Party Intervention: This refers to any external agent or event that makes a deprived group conscious of its situation and the injustices it faces. Examples include:
      • Pressure Groups & Social Movements: The JP Movement (1974-75), led by Jayaprakash Narayan, was a classic example. It mobilized students, the middle class, and rural populations against the perceived corruption and authoritarianism of the incumbent government, creating a subjective realisation that the political system was failing them.
      • Media Intervention: The media plays a crucial role in exposing objective realities of corruption or injustice. The Bofors scam investigation in the late 1980s, extensively covered by newspapers like The Hindu with reporting by journalists such as N. Ram and Chitra Subramaniam, made the public aware of high-level corruption, leading to widespread resentment and significant political consequences. Similarly, the Anti-corruption movement led by Anna Hazare in 2011 was amplified by 24x7 media coverage, which created a national consciousness about the extent of corruption and the need for a Lokpal (ombudsman).
      • Role of Intellectuals and Leaders: For centuries, the persistence of caste-based discrimination was justified by doctrines like karma, which portrayed it as retribution for past deeds. This ideology prevented the ‘objective reality’ of exploitation from being challenged. The emergence of leaders like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar acted as a powerful third-party intervention. Through his writings, such as Annihilation of Caste (1936), and his political activism, he provided a rational, rights-based critique of the caste system, leading to a ‘subjective realisation’ of its inherent injustice among the depressed classes and catalysing a powerful movement for social equality.

LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY

  • Status of Linguistic Diversity in India: India is one of the most linguistically diverse nations in the world. This is reflected in the popular saying, “Kos-kos par badle paani, chaar kos par vaani” (The water changes every two miles, and the language every eight).

    • Census Data (2011): According to the Census of India 2011, there are 121 major languages (languages spoken by 10,000 or more people) and 1,599 ‘other languages’. These languages belong to several major language families, including Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austroasiatic, and Tibeto-Burman.
    • Constitutional Recognition: The Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution officially recognizes 22 languages, granting them representation on the Official Languages Commission.

  • Issues Arising from Linguistic Diversity: This profound diversity has historically been a source of both rich cultural cohesion and intense political conflict. Two major issues confronted the newly independent Indian state:

    • a) The Official Language Issue:

      • Historical Context: At the time of independence, the Constituent Assembly was deeply divided over the choice of an official language. The primary contenders were Hindi (in Devanagari script) and English.
      • The Debate: Proponents of English argued for its utility as a language of administration, higher education, international diplomacy, trade, and as a window to Western scientific and literary thought. Proponents of Hindi viewed English as a symbol of colonial subjugation. Mahatma Gandhi, in his writings in Harijan, had argued that English could never be the language of the masses and that its continued dominance would create a permanent gulf between the elite and the common people.
      • Constitutional Compromise (1950): A compromise was reached, enshrined in Article 343 of the Constitution. It declared Hindi in Devanagari script as the official language of the Union. However, it stipulated that English would continue to be used for all official purposes for a period of 15 years (i.e., until 1965).
      • Conflict and Agitation (1956-60s): As the 1965 deadline approached, anxieties grew in non-Hindi-speaking states, particularly in the South. The perception that a ‘purified’ or Sanskritised Hindi was being imposed led to widespread protests, especially in Tamil Nadu. This phenomenon, where a regional sentiment of opposition to Hindi united several southern states, is an example of supra-state regionalism.
      • Legislative Resolution: To allay these fears, the Parliament passed The Official Languages Act, 1963, which provided for the continued use of English beyond 1965. However, its wording was considered ambiguous by non-Hindi speakers. Following further violent agitations in 1965, the act was amended. The Official Languages (Amendment) Act of 1967 provided for the indefinite use of English as an associate official language, establishing a de facto policy of bilingualism. This democratic accommodation effectively resolved the conflict, demonstrating the Indian political system’s capacity for negotiation and national consolidation.

    • b) The Linguistic Reorganization of States:

      • The Central Question: To what extent has the reorganization of states on a linguistic basis contributed to Indian unity?

      • Background: The demand for states based on language predates independence. The Indian National Congress itself was organized on the basis of linguistic provinces since the Nagpur Session of 1920. Post-independence, the Dhar Commission (1948) and the JVP Committee (1948) advised against it, fearing it would undermine national unity. However, the death of Potti Sreeramulu in 1952 after a 56-day hunger strike forced the creation of the state of Andhra for Telugu speakers. This led to the formation of the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) under Fazl Ali in 1953, which recommended the reorganization of states largely on linguistic lines, leading to the States Reorganisation Act of 1956.

      • Arguments in Favour (Pros):

        1. Conflict Resolution: By recognizing distinct cultural identities, it removed a major source of grievance and kept separatist tendencies and political extremism at bay.
        2. Functional for Governance: As political scientist Rajni Kothari argued in his seminal work Politics in India (1970), the linguistic reorganization was highly functional. It created homogeneous political units where administration, justice, and education could be conducted in a language the majority understood, thus making governance more effective and participatory.
        3. Development of Languages: It fostered the growth and enrichment of regional languages and literature.
        4. Strengthening of Democracy: It enabled greater political participation from the masses, as politics was no longer the exclusive domain of a small, English-speaking elite.
        5. Educational Growth: It facilitated the spread of mass education and literacy in regional languages.
        6. Unity in Diversity: It reinforced the federal principle of “unity in diversity” by giving cultural identities a legitimate space within the Indian union.

      • Arguments Against (Cons):

        1. Opened a “Pandora’s Box”: The principle, once accepted, did not resolve all issues. India’s complex linguistic map, with bilingual belts and scattered dialects, led to new demands for statehood (e.g., Mithilanchal from Bihar, Gorkhaland from West Bengal, Bodoland from Assam) and interstate disputes over linguistic minorities and territories (e.g., Belgaum dispute between Karnataka and Maharashtra).
        2. Linguistic Chauvinism: It has, in some cases, aggravated regional consciousness and promoted linguistic chauvinism, leading to a “sons of the soil” ideology that can be hostile to migrants and linguistic minorities.
        3. Negative Regionalism: When linguistic demands are not met or are politicized, they can fuel negative forms of regionalism that challenge national unity.
        4. Spillover Effect: The success of the linguistic principle created a precedent for creating smaller states based on other criteria, such as tribal identity (Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh), cultural uniqueness (Uttarakhand), or perceived underdevelopment and administrative inconvenience.

RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY

  • Sect:

    • Definition: A sect is a religious group that has broken away from an established, mainstream religion. This separation is typically caused by disagreements over core doctrines, interpretations of scripture, or practices. The German sociologist Ernst Troeltsch in his work The Social Teaching of the Christian Churches (1912) provided a classic distinction between “church” and “sect”.
    • Characteristics: Sects are often characterized as being exclusive, close-knit communities demanding a high level of commitment from their members. They may see themselves as the ‘true’ believers and often maintain a degree of tension with the wider society. Dissent from the group’s core tenets is generally not tolerated.
    • Examples: Within Islam, the split between Sunni and Shia originated from a dispute over succession after the death of Prophet Muhammad. In Christianity, the Protestant Reformation led by figures like Martin Luther in the 16th century resulted in numerous sects (like Lutherans, Calvinists) breaking away from the Roman Catholic Church. In Hinduism, traditions like Shaivism (worship of Shiva), Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu), and Shaktism (worship of the Devi) can be seen as major sects or denominations with distinct philosophies and rituals.

  • Cult (or New Religious Movement - NRM):

    • Definition: The term ‘cult’ is often used pejoratively. In sociology, it refers to a loosely-knit and transient religious group that arises from cultural innovation (a new revelation or idea) or importation (introducing a belief system from another culture). It is typically organized around a single, charismatic leader.
    • Characteristics: Unlike sects, cults often do not challenge the mainstream religion directly and may coexist with it. They tend to be more accommodating of dissent, membership is voluntary and open, and they often focus on individual experience and fulfillment rather than rigid doctrine. They are sometimes described as having a ‘customer’ or ‘client’ orientation, offering specific services like spiritual healing or personal growth.

  • Reasons for the Growth of Sects and Cults: The sociologist Oleridge (as mentioned in the summary, though the ideas align with broader sociological theories) and others identify several reasons for their proliferation:

    • This-Worldly vs. Other-Worldly Focus: Mainstream religions often emphasize salvation in the afterlife. In contrast, many cults and new-age movements promise immediate relief from suffering and solutions to mundane, ‘this-worldly’ problems like stress, health, or financial success.
    • Immediacy of Experience: Traditional religions can seem bureaucratic, with a complex hierarchy and rituals that create distance between the devotee and the divine. Cults, centered on a charismatic leader, offer a medium for direct, personal interaction and spiritual guidance.

  • Sociological Explanations for Emergence:

    • Marginalization: As argued by Max Weber, sects often emerge among groups that are marginalized or disprivileged in society. They offer a ‘theodicy of disprivilege’—a religious explanation and compensation for their suffering. For instance, the Ravi Dasiya and Kabir Panth sects in India gained prominence by challenging caste-based discrimination and promoting an egalitarian message, attracting followers from the lower castes.
    • Social Change and Anomie: Sects can arise as a response to rapid social change. For a youth who feels constrained by traditional social structures like the caste system, a sect with an egalitarian ethos can offer a sense of freedom and a new identity.
    • Revivalism: Some sects are revivalist, aiming to restore what they see as the ‘pure’ or original form of a religion. The example of the Dutta sect trying to revive a ‘pure’ form of Varnashrama Dharma fits this model.
    • Urbanization and Individualism: The anonymity and alienation of modern urban life can lead individuals to seek a sense of community and belonging, which sects and cults readily provide.
    • Relative Deprivation (Spiritual): The affluent middle class, while materially successful in a capitalist and consumerist society, may experience a sense of spiritual emptiness or ‘relative deprivation’. Sects and cults cater to this need for meaning and spiritual fulfillment.
    • Secularization and Religious Revivalism: Some sociologists argue that as modernization leads to the secularization (decline in the social significance) of traditional religion, it doesn’t eliminate the human need for faith. This vacuum is often filled by a revival of religion in new forms, such as the proliferation of sects and cults.
    • Post-modernity and Media: Post-modern scholars suggest that in a media-saturated society, the hyper-visibility of religious leaders and movements through television (televangelism) and the internet increases their reach and appeal, contributing to their growth.

Prelims Pointers

  • Census 2011 Data: India has 121 major languages and 1599 other languages.
  • Constitutional Provision: Article 343 of the Constitution designates Hindi in Devanagari script as the official language of the Union.
  • Official Language Policy Timeline:
    1. 1950: English to continue as an associate official language for 15 years.
    2. 1963: The Official Languages Act was passed to continue the use of English after 1965.
    3. 1967: The Official Languages (Amendment) Act established an indefinite policy of bilingualism.
  • Commissions on State Reorganization:
    • Linguistic Provinces Committee (Dhar Commission), 1948.
    • JVP Committee (Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Pattabhi Sitaramayya), 1948.
    • States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) or Fazl Ali Commission, 1953.
  • First Linguistic State: Andhra State was formed in 1953 for Telugu-speaking people.
  • Key Act: States Reorganisation Act was passed in 1956.
  • Eighth Schedule: It currently lists 22 officially recognized languages of India.
  • Definition - Sect: A religious group that breaks away from an established religion due to doctrinal disagreement.
  • Definition - Cult: A loosely organized religious group, often centered on a charismatic leader, that arises from cultural innovation.
  • Key Figures:
    • Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: Provided a rational critique of the caste system, author of Annihilation of Caste.
    • Jayaprakash Narayan: Leader of the ‘Total Revolution’ or JP Movement against corruption and authoritarianism in the mid-1970s.
    • Potti Sreeramulu: His martyrdom after a hunger strike led to the formation of Andhra state.

Mains Insights

1. The Dialectic of Deprivation and Mobilisation (GS Paper I & II)

  • Cause-Effect Relationship: Objective deprivation (e.g., poverty, discrimination) is a necessary but not sufficient condition for social mobilisation. The critical catalyst is the ‘subjective realisation’ of this deprivation, often triggered by external agents like media, civil society, or political leaders. This framework helps in understanding the genesis of major social and political movements in India, from the anti-caste movements to modern anti-corruption crusades.
  • Analytical Perspective: While this process can be a force for positive social change and deepening democracy (as in the case of Ambedkar’s movement), it can also be manipulated. Political actors can create a sense of relative deprivation among groups for electoral gains, potentially stoking social conflict. Therefore, the role of the ‘third party’ is crucial and needs critical evaluation.

2. Linguistic Reorganization: A Tool for Unity or a Source of Fissures? (GS Paper I & II)

  • Historiographical Debate: The decision to reorganize states on a linguistic basis is one of the most debated topics in modern Indian history.
    • Viewpoint 1 (Integrationist): Scholars like Ramachandra Guha and Rajni Kothari argue that it was a masterstroke of democratic statesmanship. By accommodating linguistic aspirations, the Indian state strengthened its own legitimacy, prevented the balkanization that many Western observers predicted, and deepened federalism and democracy.
    • Viewpoint 2 (Sceptical): Critics argue that it institutionalized linguistic identity as the primary marker of politics, opening a Pandora’s box of sub-regional demands, interstate water and boundary disputes, and fostering a ‘sons of the soil’ culture that undermines national unity and the rights of minorities within states.
  • Contemporary Relevance: This debate is relevant for analysing current demands for new states (e.g., Gorkhaland, Vidarbha). The government faces a dilemma: Does creating smaller states enhance administrative efficiency and address developmental deficits, or does it further fragment the polity and create unviable economic units? The argument has shifted from a purely linguistic basis to one of development and governance.

3. Sects and Cults: Modernity’s Religious Manifestations (GS Paper I)

  • Socio-Economic Drivers: The rise of sects and cults is not a retreat into pre-modernity but a complex response to modernity itself. It is driven by urban alienation, the anxieties of a competitive capitalist economy, and the search for identity and community in a rapidly changing world.
  • Dual Role: Sects and cults play a dual, often contradictory, role in society.
    • Agents of Social Reform: Historically and contemporaneously, many sects (like the Bhakti-era movements and modern anti-caste sects) have provided spaces for social reform, challenging rigid hierarchies like caste and patriarchy.
    • Potential for Conflict and Exploitation: Conversely, the closed nature of some groups, their reliance on a charismatic leader, and unorthodox beliefs can lead to social friction, exploitation of followers, and, in extreme cases, confrontations with the law and order machinery (e.g., the case of Dera Sacha Sauda).
  • Challenge to Secularism: The proliferation and growing political influence of certain sects and cults pose a challenge to the secular fabric. It blurs the lines between religion and politics and raises questions about regulation, financial transparency, and the protection of individual rights within these groups.

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