1.4 - Society Notes 09

Elaborate Notes

COMMUNALISM

Communalism is a multi-faceted ideology central to the socio-political discourse of modern India. It fundamentally posits that society is divided into distinct religious communities whose secular interests—be they social, political, or economic—are not only different but often divergent and oppositional.

• Conceptual Nuances:

  • In a benign sense, communalism can imply a strong, positive affinity an individual feels towards their own community, its culture, and traditions. This aspect can drive collective action for the socio-economic upliftment of the community’s members, fostering a sense of belonging and mutual support.
  • However, in its dominant and negative connotation, particularly within the Indian context, it is an ideology that aggressively emphasizes the separate and often hostile identities of religious groups. As historian Bipan Chandra articulated in his work, “India’s Struggle for Independence” (1988), communalism is the belief that because a group of people follow a particular religion, they have, as a result, common social, political, and economic interests.
  • A critical distinction must be made between religiosity and communalism. A person deeply devoted to their religion is not necessarily communal. Communalism arises when religion is instrumentalized for political ends. This phenomenon is aptly described as a ‘Political trade in Religion’, a term often associated with Jawaharlal Nehru, who saw it as the exploitation of religious sentiments for mobilising political support and power.

• Manifestations and Stages of Communalism: Based on the intensity of the ideology, communalism can be understood through three progressive stages, a framework extensively developed by Bipan Chandra:

  • Mild (or Liberal) Communalism: This is the foundational stage where the belief is propagated that people belonging to one religious community share common secular interests. For example, the notion that all Muslims or all Hindus have identical economic and political goals.
  • Moderate Communalism: This stage advances the idea that the secular interests of different religious communities are divergent and dissimilar. For instance, the interests of Hindus and Muslims are perceived as being different and non-convergent, leading to demands for separate considerations in jobs or political representation.
  • Extreme (or Fascist) Communalism: This is the most virulent stage, which posits that the interests of different religious communities are not only different but are mutually hostile and irreconcilable. This stage applies the Zero-sum Game Theory of Power, where one community’s gain is invariably seen as the other’s loss, making conflict and violence seem inevitable. The advocacy for the Partition of India by the Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah is a prime historical example of this stage.

• Types of Communalism:

  • 1) Assimilationist Communalism: This occurs when a dominant religious group attempts to absorb smaller religious or cultural groups into its own fold, often by redefining their identity.
    • Example: The characterization of India’s tribal populations as ‘Backward Hindus’ by the sociologist G.S. Ghurye in works like “The Scheduled Tribes” (1959). This perspective sought to integrate Adivasis into the Hindu social structure, overlooking their distinct animistic beliefs and cultures.
    • Example: The application of the Hindu Code Bills (1955-56) to Sikhs, Jains, and Buddhists. While legally intended to provide a uniform civil code for these closely related Dharmic faiths, some sections within these communities perceived it as an act of cultural and religious assimilation into a broader Hindu identity.
  • 2) Welfarist Communalism: This form is characterised by a focus on the socio-economic welfare of one’s own religious community. It is non-antagonistic towards other groups.
    • Example: The establishment of educational institutions like the Aligarh Muslim University (initially the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, 1875) or the Banaras Hindu University (1916) to promote modern education within their respective communities.
  • 3) Retreatist Communalism: This involves religious communities consciously withdrawing from mainstream political processes and activities to preserve their unique identity and practices.
    • Example: The Baha’i Community, whose members are doctrinally forbidden from participating in partisan politics, holding political office, or joining political parties, thereby maintaining a stance of political non-involvement.
  • 4) Retaliatory Communalism: This is a dangerous form where religious groups perceive each other as mutually hostile entities, leading to cycles of violence and retribution. It is reactive and often results in communal riots.
    • Example: The tragic history of communal violence in India, including the 1984 anti-Sikh riots following the assassination of Indira Gandhi, the 2002 Gujarat riots, and the 2013 Muzaffarnagar riots.
  • 5) Separatist Communalism: This involves a demand for political autonomy or a separate state for a religious community, but within the existing federal structure of the nation.
    • Example: The Punjabi Suba movement in the 1950s and 60s, led by the Akali Dal. While primarily a linguistic demand for a Punjabi-speaking state, it had strong religious underpinnings, culminating in the creation of the state of Punjab in 1966.
  • 6) Secessionist Communalism: This is the most extreme political form, where a community demands complete sovereignty and the creation of a new nation-state based on religious identity, posing a direct threat to the territorial integrity of the country.
    • Example: The demand for Khalistan, a separate sovereign state for Sikhs, which gained momentum in the late 1970s and early 1980s.

• Evolution of Communalism in India:

  • Pre-Colonial Roots: While conflicts involving religious markers existed before British rule (e.g., the destruction of temples by rulers like Mahmud of Ghazni, or the imposition of taxes like Jizya by Aurangzeb), historians like Romila Thapar and Irfan Habib argue that these were primarily driven by political and economic motivations (plunder, assertion of authority) rather than a mass-based communal ideology. Modern communalism, as a structured ideology, is a modern phenomenon.
  • The British Colonial Period: The British administration is widely credited with sowing the seeds of modern communalism to weaken the nascent Indian nationalist movement.
    • Socio-Economic Factors: The colonial economic policies led to agricultural distress and stunted industrial growth. This created intense competition for scarce government jobs and educational opportunities among the Indian middle class. This competition was often channelled along religious lines, providing fertile ground for communal politics. The socio-economic reality where class and religion often coincided (e.g., Hindu landlords/moneylenders and Muslim peasantry in East Bengal, as seen during the Moplah Rebellion of 1921) meant that class conflict was easily misinterpreted and mobilized as religious conflict.
    • Divide and Rule Policy: This was a conscious state policy to maintain colonial rule.
      • Separate Electorates: Introduced through the Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) for Muslims and later extended to Sikhs, Indian Christians, and others, this policy constitutionally established the idea that Indians were not a single nation but a conglomeration of separate religious communities with distinct political interests.
      • Partition of Bengal (1905): Ostensibly for ‘administrative convenience’, Lord Curzon’s partition was a deliberate attempt to divide the Bengali-speaking population on religious lines (a Muslim-majority East Bengal and a Hindu-majority West Bengal) to undermine the hub of Indian nationalism.
      • Patronage and Historiography: The British patronized communal organizations and promoted a communal interpretation of Indian history (e.g., James Mill’s “The History of British India” (1817), which periodized Indian history into Hindu, Muslim, and British periods), fostering a sense of historical antagonism.
  • Role of Nationalist Leadership: Critics argue that the nationalist movement, despite its secular ideals, failed to effectively counter communalism.
    • The Indian National Congress often negotiated with communal leaders (both Hindu and Muslim) as representatives of their communities, thus legitimizing them, rather than launching a grassroots campaign against communal ideology.
    • The use of religious symbols and idioms in nationalist mobilization (e.g., Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s Ganapati and Shivaji festivals; Mahatma Gandhi’s concept of ‘Ram Rajya’) inadvertently created apprehension and alienation among sections of the Muslim minority.
  • Post-Independence Developments:
    • Cycle of Violence and Ghettoization: Post-independence, communal tensions have led to a vicious cycle: lack of cultural integration fosters stereotypes and prejudices, which in times of conflict fuel hatred and violence. Survivors of violence often retreat into communally segregated neighbourhoods or ghettos for safety, a phenomenon known as the survival technique of invisibility. This ghettoization further reduces inter-community interaction, deepens suspicion, and makes reconciliation difficult.
    • Communalization of Politics: The use of religion for electoral gains (vote bank politics) and the politics of appeasement (e.g., the overturning of the Shah Bano Supreme Court verdict through the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986) have been accused of hardening communal identities.
    • Psychological and Media Factors: A lack of inter-community trust is exacerbated by sensationalist media coverage and the rapid spread of misinformation. The ‘echo-chamber effect’ of social media platforms creates polarized environments where communal narratives are reinforced without challenge. The 2013 Muzaffarnagar riots were significantly fueled by the circulation of a fake video online.
    • Administrative Failures: The state machinery, particularly the police, has often been accused of inaction, bias, or complicity during communal riots, as documented in numerous inquiry reports like the Srikrishna Commission Report (1998) on the 1992-93 Bombay riots.

RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM

Religious fundamentalism is a distinct, though often related, phenomenon. It represents a militant reaction against the perceived threats of secularism and modernity to religious identity.

• Definition: According to sociologists Gabriel Almond, Emmanuel Sivan, and R. Scott Appleby in their project “The Fundamentalism Project” (1991-1995), fundamentalism is a “visible pattern of religious militancy by which self-styled ‘true believers’ attempt to arrest the erosion of religious identity, fortify the borders of the religious community, and create viable alternatives to secular institutions and behaviors.” It is a violent offshoot of communalism that seeks not just political power but the total restructuring of society based on religious tenets.

• Rationale and Conditions for Emergence:

  • Fundamentalism arises from the perception that modern, secular life is corrosive to faith and religious identity. It is a response to the marginalization of religion from the public sphere.
  • Sufficient Conditions for its growth include:
    • Ideological Cohesion: The presence of a single, authoritative sacred text (e.g., the Bible, the Quran) that is interpreted literally and considered an infallible blueprint for all aspects of life.
    • Charismatic Leadership: Powerful leaders who can articulate a sense of grievance, mobilize followers, and provide a compelling vision of a restored religious order.
    • Information and Communication Technology (ICT): Modern technology is ironically used to propagate anti-modernist ideologies, recruit members, and coordinate activities globally (e.g., ISIS’s use of social media).
    • Organizational Structures: The existence of anti-social groups or radical organizations that provide the framework for indoctrination, training, and action.
    • Reaction to Secular Education: The spread of secular, scientific education is often seen as a direct threat that undermines religious authority and belief systems.

• Way Forward: Tackling Communalism and Fundamentalism

Short-term Measures (Immediate Response)	Long-term Measures (Systemic Reforms)
Persuasion & De-escalation: Use an ‘innovative diffusion framework’ to engage influential religious and community leaders to appeal for peace.	Socio-Economic Equity: Address root causes like poverty, illiteracy, and unemployment to reduce the vulnerability of youth to radicalization.
Information Control: Temporary, localized suspension of internet services to prevent the spread of rumours and inflammatory content.	Value-based Education: Promote a secular, scientific, and constitutional morality-based curriculum that fosters critical thinking and mutual respect, free from ideological bias.
Show of Force: Conduct Flag Marches by police and paramilitary forces to deter potential rioters and restore public confidence in law enforcement.	Media Responsibility: Encourage and enforce responsible journalism that avoids sensationalism and promotes communal harmony.
Restrictive Orders: Implement measures like Section 144 CrPC to prevent unlawful assembly of groups.	Criminal Justice Reforms: Ensure speedy and impartial justice through Fast Track Courts, witness protection, and adequate compensation for victims to restore faith in the system.
Surveillance & Accountability: Install and maintain functional CCTV cameras in sensitive areas to deter crime and ensure accountability, preventing the diffusion of responsibility.	Banning Communal Outfits: Take decisive legal action to ban organizations that consistently promote hatred and violence.
Grievance Redressal: Establish robust and accessible grievance redressal mechanisms at the local level to address inter-community issues before they escalate.	Promoting Cultural Syncretism: Use cinema, theatre, and other cultural platforms to celebrate India’s composite culture and promote communal harmony.
Community Engagement: Set up Peace Committees and promote Community Policing models (e.g., Kerala’s Janamaithri Suraksha Project) to build trust between the police and public.	Financial Scrutiny: Implement transparent mechanisms to scrutinize domestic and international funding of religious and social organizations to prevent foreign-sponsored radicalization.
Administrative Preparedness: Ensure mobile medical infrastructure, provide basic necessities to victims in relief camps, and avoid politicization of tragedy.	Police Reforms: Implement recommendations of bodies like the Ranganath Misra Committee (2007) for better representation of minorities in police forces and for sensitization and training on human rights and secular values.

REGIONAL DIVERSITY

India is a mosaic of diverse regions, each with a unique identity that contributes to the nation’s composite culture while also presenting challenges of regionalism.

• Concept of a Region:

  • A region is generally defined as a homogeneous area that is physically and culturally distinct from its neighbouring areas. This homogeneity can be based on geography (e.g., the Himalayan region), language (e.g., Dravidian-speaking South India), ethnicity, historical experience, or economic life.
  • A crucial element is the subjective awareness among the people of a region that they share commonalities that make them distinct from others. This shared consciousness fosters a regional identity.
  • When this identity becomes the primary basis for professing political loyalty and making political demands, it transforms into regionalism.

• Manifestations of Regional Diversity:

  • Pan-State Regions: Some regions transcend the boundaries of a single state.
    • Northeastern States: These states form a distinct region due to their geographical proximity, shared historical experience of relative isolation from the mainland, and a preponderance of diverse ethnic and tribal communities.
    • South Indian States: These states are broadly unified by a common Dravidian linguistic heritage, which has historically been a basis for regional identity, often in contrast to the Indo-Aryan speaking northern states.
  • Intra-State Regions (Sub-regions): It is common for a single state to contain multiple distinct regions, often leading to demands for separate administrative recognition or statehood.
    • Uttar Pradesh: Contains distinct sub-regions like Purvanchal (Eastern UP), Bundelkhand, and Paschim Pradesh (Western UP), each with its own dialect, economic conditions, and political aspirations.
    • Manipur: Marked by a sharp geographical and ethnic divide between the Meitei-dominated Imphal Valley and the surrounding Hill Areas inhabited primarily by Naga and Kuki-Chin tribes.
    • Rajasthan: Historically divided into regions like Mewar, Marwar, and Shekhawati, which correspond to former princely states and retain distinct cultural identities.

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Prelims Pointers

• Communalism Definition: An ideology where society is seen as divided into religious communities with distinct and often opposing secular interests.
• ‘Political trade in Religion’: Phrase associated with Jawaharlal Nehru for the use of religion in politics.
• Bipan Chandra’s Three Stages of Communalism: 1) Mild (common interests), 2) Moderate (divergent interests), 3) Extreme (hostile interests).
• Zero-sum Game Theory: Applied in extreme communalism, where one community’s gain is perceived as another’s loss.
• Assimilationist Communalism Example: G.S. Ghurye referring to tribals as ‘Backward Hindus’.
• Hindu Code Bills (1955-56): Legally applied to Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs.
• Retreatist Communalism Example: The Baha’i Community is forbidden from participating in partisan politics.
• Separatist Communalism Example: The demand for a separate Punjab State (Punjabi Suba Movement).
• Secessionist Communalism Example: The demand for Khalistan.
• Separate Electorates: Introduced by the Morley-Minto Reforms, 1909.
• Partition of Bengal: Executed by Lord Curzon in 1905.
• Moplah Rebellion (1921): An agrarian revolt in Malabar that took a communal turn.
• Shah Bano Case (1985): A Supreme Court verdict on maintenance for a divorced Muslim woman, which was later overturned by legislation.
• Religious Fundamentalism Definition (Gabriel Almond): A pattern of religious militancy by ‘true believers’ to arrest the erosion of religious identity.
• Ranganath Misra Committee (2007): Recommended measures for the welfare of religious and linguistic minorities, including police reforms.
• Srikrishna Commission: Inquired into the 1992-93 Bombay Riots.
• Sub-regions in States:
  • Uttar Pradesh: Purvanchal, Bundelkhand, Paschim Pradesh.
  • Manipur: Imphal Valley, Hill Areas.
  • Rajasthan: Mewar, Marwar, Shekhawati.

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Mains Insights

Communalism

1. Historiographical Debate: The origin of communalism is a contested topic.

   • Colonial Construct View: Scholars like Bipan Chandra and Gyanendra Pandey argue that communalism is a modern phenomenon, fundamentally a product of colonial policies (‘divide and rule’), socio-economic changes under colonialism, and the resultant competition for resources.
   • Pre-Colonial Roots View: Some historians argue that while modern communalism is a colonial-era development, seeds of religious antagonism and community-based identities existed in the pre-colonial period, which were later exploited by the British.
   • Analysis: A balanced view suggests that while religious differences and conflicts existed previously, colonialism transformed these into a structured, mass-based political ideology that served its imperial interests.

2. Communalism, Class, and False Consciousness:

   • A Marxist analysis would view communalism as a form of ‘false consciousness’, where the ruling classes (both colonial and native elites) use religious identity to divide the working class and peasantry, thus preventing a united class-based struggle against exploitation. The Zamindar-peasant conflict taking a communal colour is a classic example.
   • However, post-modern and subaltern perspectives argue that this view is reductionist. Religious and community identities are deeply felt realities and cannot be simply dismissed as a mask for economic interests. Communalism has its own social and cultural logic that must be understood on its own terms.

3. Post-Independence State and Secularism:

   • The Indian state adopted secularism, but its practice has been complex. It has often oscillated between non-interference and intervention in religious affairs.
   • Critique of Appeasement: Policies perceived as ‘appeasement’ of minority communities (e.g., the Shah Bano case) have been used by majoritarian communal forces to mobilize support, arguing that secularism is practiced unequally.
   • Critique of Majoritarianism: Conversely, the state has been accused of being slow or biased in protecting minority rights and failing to act decisively against majoritarian violence, thereby eroding its secular credentials. This creates a link between communalism and internal security challenges (GS-III).

Religious Fundamentalism

1. Modernity: Cause or Cure?

   • Religious fundamentalism presents a paradox. It is a rejection of the principles of modern secularism and rationalism.
   • However, it is also a product of modernity. It uses modern tools (technology, media, organizational methods) to achieve its aims. Globalization, by creating a sense of cultural dislocation and identity crisis, can fuel a retreat into the perceived certainties of fundamentalist beliefs.
   • The analysis requires understanding fundamentalism not as a simple return to tradition, but as a modern, political project that selectively reinterprets tradition to serve contemporary goals.

2. Threat to Pluralism and Democracy:

   • Fundamentalism is inherently anti-democratic as it seeks to replace laws based on popular sovereignty and reason with what it considers divine, infallible law.
   • It poses a grave threat to India’s pluralistic fabric by rejecting the idea of equal rights for all citizens, irrespective of faith, and by promoting intolerance and violence against dissenting views and minority groups. This is a key concern for Indian Polity (GS-II).

Regional Diversity and Regionalism

1. Regionalism: Threat or Strength?

   • Negative View: Regionalism can be seen as a threat to national unity, promoting parochial interests over national ones. Extreme regionalism can lead to secessionist movements, threatening India’s territorial integrity.
   • Positive View: Regionalism can be viewed as a natural assertion of diverse identities within a large federal polity. It can act as a check on the centralizing tendencies of the state. Positive regionalism leads to demands for equitable development and cultural recognition, strengthening federalism and democracy. The linguistic reorganization of states, for instance, is seen as having strengthened, not weakened, the Indian Union.

2. Drivers of Regionalism:

   • The causes are multifaceted and often interlinked.
     • Cultural & Linguistic: The desire to protect and promote a unique language and culture (e.g., Dravidian movement).
     • Economic: Feelings of neglect, uneven development, and economic exploitation by the central government or other regions (e.g., demands for separate states like Telangana or Bodoland).
     • Political: Mobilization by regional elites to gain political power and autonomy.
   • Policy Implications: Addressing regionalism requires a nuanced approach that accommodates legitimate cultural and economic aspirations through mechanisms like fiscal federalism, autonomous councils, and inclusive development policies, rather than simply suppressing them as anti-national.