GS Notes

1.4 - Society Notes 11

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Elaborate Notes

Ethnonationalism

  • Ethnic Group: An ethnic group is a social collectivity whose members share a sense of common ancestry, a shared historical past, and a common culture. This includes elements like language, religion, customs, and traditions. The crucial element, as sociologist Max Weber noted in Economy and Society (1922), is the subjective belief in common descent, regardless of whether an objective blood relationship exists. This self-awareness of being a distinct group (“we-feeling”) forms the basis of ethnic identity.

  • The Process of Ethnonationalism: The transformation from a simple ethnic identity to a political ideology of ethnonationalism follows a distinct process:

    1. Ethnic Identity: The initial stage is the existence of a self-conscious ethnic group.
    2. Differential Access to Resources: When one ethnic group perceives or experiences systematic discrimination in accessing resources (jobs, education, political power) compared to another dominant group, it creates social and economic disparities along ethnic lines.
    3. Ethnic Stratification: This leads to a hierarchical arrangement of ethnic groups in society, where power, wealth, and prestige are unequally distributed. This system is often reinforced by state policies or social structures.
    4. Ethnic Antagonism: The stratified system generates hostility, prejudice, and conflict between the groups. The subordinate group feels alienated and oppressed by the dominant group.
    5. Subjective Realization of Objective Reality: The disadvantaged group moves from merely experiencing discrimination to consciously interpreting their situation as a collective injustice based on their ethnic identity. This stage is often facilitated by political leaders who articulate the group’s grievances.
    6. Ethnonationalism: This is the final stage where the ethnic group develops political aspirations for self-determination. It demands political autonomy, ranging from regional self-governance to the creation of a separate nation-state, believing that its cultural and political identity can only be protected through sovereign power.

  • Example: Sri Lankan Civil War:

    • Historical Context: Sri Lanka has two primary ethnic groups: the majority Sinhalese (predominantly Buddhist) and the minority Tamils (predominantly Hindu).
    • Discriminatory Policies: After independence from Britain in 1948, the Sinhalese-dominated government enacted policies that systematically disadvantaged the Tamil population.
      • The Ceylon Citizenship Act of 1948 disenfranchised a large number of Indian-origin Tamils working in plantations.
      • The “Sinhala Only Act” of 1956 made Sinhala the sole official language, marginalizing Tamil speakers in government employment and education.
      • In 1972, the constitution gave Buddhism the “foremost place,” making it the de facto state religion.
      • Policies standardizing university admissions based on language quotas were perceived as discriminatory by Tamils.
    • Outcome: These policies created deep-seated ethnic antagonism, leading to the subjective realization among Tamils that their identity and rights were under threat. This culminated in the rise of militant Tamil groups, most notably the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), demanding a separate state (“Tamil Eelam”), which sparked a brutal civil war from 1983 to 2009.

Unity in Diversity

The phrase “Unity in Diversity” encapsulates the Indian national identity, highlighting a synthesis of disparate cultures within a singular political and social framework. The concept was famously articulated by India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, in his book The Discovery of India (1946), where he described India as a land of ancient palimpsest where layers of thought and reverie had been inscribed one over the other, yet no succeeding layer had completely erased what had been written previously.

  • Bonds of Unity:

    • 1. Geographical Bonds:

      • a) Geo-Political Unity: India’s distinct geographical identity, defined by the Himalayas in the north and the seas on its other three sides, has historically fostered a sense of a shared subcontinent. This geographical unity is reinforced by a modern political structure established post-independence:
        • A Single Constitution: The Constitution of India (1950) is the supreme law that applies uniformly to all states and citizens, establishing a common framework for governance and rights.
        • Single Citizenship: Unlike federations like the USA, India provides for a single citizenship (under Part II of the Constitution), fostering a singular national identity over regional or state identities.
        • Common Political Culture: Symbols like the National Flag, the National Anthem, and national holidays create a shared political consciousness.
      • b) Geo-Cultural Unity:
        • Institution of Pilgrimage: For centuries, the practice of pilgrimage (tirthayatra) has created a “sacred geography” that overlays the physical geography of India. As documented by scholars like Diana L. Eck in India: A Sacred Geography (2012), this network of sacred sites has facilitated cultural exchange and emotional integration. The Char Dham (Four Abodes) pilgrimage, established by Adi Shankaracharya in the 8th century CE, strategically connects the corners of the subcontinent: Badrinath (North), Puri (East), Dwarka (West), and Rameswaram (South). Similar pan-Indian networks include the twelve Jyotirlingas for Shaivites and the 51 Shakti Peethas for Shaktas, which have historically encouraged travel, interaction, and the spread of cultural norms across linguistic and regional divides.

    • 2. Regional Bonds of Unity:

      • Vertical Unity (Intra-Regional): Within a specific geographical region (e.g., Bengal, Tamil Nadu), a common regional language and shared cultural practices create a strong bond that often transcends caste hierarchies. This shared regional identity unites different jatis (castes) living in the same area.
      • Horizontal Unity (Inter-Regional): Simultaneously, caste can act as a unifying force across different regions. Members of the same jati or caste group, even if they live in different states and speak different languages, may share a sense of affinity and solidarity, often maintained through caste associations and endogamous marriage practices. Sociologist M.N. Srinivas explored the complex and pervasive role of caste in forging such social networks.

    • 3. Religious Bonds:

      • a) Inter-religious Bonds (Syncretism): Despite religious diversity, there is a history of syncretic practices. The veneration of Sufi saints at dargahs like that of Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer by both Hindus and Muslims is a prime example. The Bhakti and Sufi movements of the medieval period, with saints like Kabir and Guru Nanak, preached a universal message of love and devotion that transcended religious orthodoxies, creating a shared spiritual heritage.
      • b) Intra-religious Bonds: Within a single religion, such as Hinduism, there are numerous sects and cults (e.g., Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism). However, foundational scriptures like the Vedas, Upanishads, and epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata provide a common philosophical and mythological framework that unifies these diverse traditions.

    • Miscellaneous Unifying Factors:

      • All India Services (AIS): The IAS, IPS, etc., create a unified administrative structure with officers from different regions serving across the country, promoting national integration.
      • Cinema: Popular cinema, particularly Bollywood, has created a pan-Indian popular culture, disseminating common languages (Hindustani), narratives, and social trends.
      • Corporate Culture: The rise of a modern, pan-Indian corporate sector fosters a uniform professional culture that transcends regional and social backgrounds.

Diversity in Unity

This concept is the corollary to “Unity in Diversity.” It asserts that the Indian nation is not built on uniformity or homogeneity, but on the very existence and celebration of its pluralistic cultures. The unity of the nation is derived from its ability to accommodate and integrate these diverse elements into a composite whole.

  • This framework acknowledges that differences in language, religion, ethnicity, and customs are not weaknesses but sources of strength and cultural richness.
  • It stands in contrast to the European model of the nation-state, which often sought to create a single, monolithic national culture.
  • An example is within a single religion like Islam. The diversity of sects (Shia, Sunni), schools of thought (Hanafi, Shafi’i), and regional cultural practices (e.g., the distinct traditions of Kerala’s Mappila Muslims versus North India’s Muslims) is immense. Yet, the core teachings of the Quran and the shared identity of being Muslim act as a thread of unity. The Indian state, through its constitutional framework, protects the right of these diverse communities to maintain their distinct identities.

Secularism

Secularism is a principle that advocates for the separation of state institutions from religious institutions. In a secular state, political authority is derived from the people, not from a divine source. The Indian conception of secularism is unique and has evolved based on its specific socio-historical context.

  • Concept: Indian secularism is a normative doctrine that promotes freedom of religion and equality between and within religions. It is committed to ending both inter-religious domination (one religious group oppressing another) and intra-religious domination (oppression within a religion, such as that based on caste or gender). The word “Secular” was added to the Preamble of the Constitution by the 42nd Amendment Act of 1976, making explicit what was already implicit in the constitutional framework.

  • Models of Secularism:

    • 1. US Model of Secularism:

      • Origin: The concept is often attributed to Thomas Jefferson, who, in an 1802 letter, spoke of building a “wall of separation between Church & State.” This is enshrined in the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
      • Nature: It posits a strict, mutually exclusive relationship between religion and politics. The state is prohibited from establishing a national religion (“Establishment Clause”) and from interfering with the free practice of religion (“Free Exercise Clause”). This is often described as maintaining an “arm’s length distance.”
      • Rationale: Religion is considered a private affair of the individual. The state has no right to interfere in it, and religious bodies should not interfere in state matters.
      • Scope & Rights: There is no scope for state-sponsored religious reforms. The focus is exclusively on individual rights to freedom of religion, not on community-specific rights. This is sometimes termed “negative” or “soft” secularism.

    • 2. France Model of Secularism (Laïcité):

      • Origin: The concept of ‘Laïcité’ was formally established by the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State.
      • Rationale: It emerged from a history of conflict between the Republic and the powerful Catholic Church. The goal was to curtail the Church’s dominance in public life and establish the supremacy of the secular state.
      • Nature: This is a form of “hard secularism”. It mandates not just separation but the strict confinement of religion to the private sphere. Any overt display of religious symbols or beliefs in public institutions like schools and government offices is prohibited. A notable example is the 2004 law banning conspicuous religious symbols in French public schools.

    • 3. The Indian Model of Secularism:

      • Nature: In India, the “wall of separation” between religion and state is “porous.” The state does not strictly separate itself from religion but maintains a “principled distance”.
        • The state can interfere in religious affairs to enact social reforms and uphold constitutional values. For example, the Hindu Code Bills (1955-56) reformed marriage and inheritance laws, and temple entry legislation fought against caste-based discrimination. The Shah Bano case (1985) and the subsequent debate on a Uniform Civil Code (Article 44) highlight this complex interaction.
        • Conversely, religion is not permitted to dictate state policy. The Supreme Court in the S. R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994) case held that secularism is a part of the “basic structure” of the Constitution and that any political party mobilizing on religious lines could be banned.
      • Principled Distance: This concept, articulated by political theorist Rajeev Bhargava, argues that the Indian state is not strictly neutral but engages with religion based on principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity. It may abstain from interference to protect religious freedom, or it may intervene to challenge oppression within a religion. The decision to intervene or not is not arbitrary but is guided by constitutional morality.
      • Rights: The Indian Constitution protects both individual religious freedom (Article 25) and community-specific rights for religious minorities to establish and administer their own educational institutions (Article 30) and conserve their culture (Article 29).
      • Positive Secularism: The Indian model is considered “positive” because the state is not indifferent to religion but strives to ensure that all religions have the opportunity to flourish, embodying the principle of Sarva Dharma Samabhava (equal respect for all religions).

Secularisation

Secularisation is a sociological process, distinct from the political doctrine of secularism. It refers to the declining social significance of religion in society.

  • Definition: As defined by sociologist Bryan Wilson in Religion in Secular Society (1966), secularisation is the process whereby religious thinking, practice, and institutions lose social significance. It is often linked to the process of modernisation.

  • Key Aspects:

    • Decline in Public Influence: Religion’s role in governing public life (law, politics, education) diminishes.
    • Decline in Participation: There is a noticeable drop in active participation in institutionalized religion (e.g., church attendance).
    • Rationalization and Disenchantment: As articulated by Max Weber, it involves a shift from magical and supernatural explanations to rational, scientific ones—the “disenchantment of the world.”
    • Individualism: Religious belief becomes more a matter of personal choice rather than a social obligation.

  • Extent of Secularisation in Indian Society:

    • Arguments for Secularisation:

      • Legal & Political Sphere: The adoption of a secular constitution and a uniform criminal legal system has replaced religious codes in public law. Judicial pronouncements, like declaring certain religious practices as “non-essential,” further this process.
      • Social Institutions: Marriage is increasingly seen as a civil contract rather than a purely sacred sacrament, evidenced by the acceptance of divorce (Hindu Marriage Act, 1955) and inter-caste/inter-religious marriages (Special Marriage Act, 1954).
      • Economy & Labour: The traditional caste-based division of labour (jajmani system) has largely been replaced by a modern, capitalist economy where skills, not birth, determine occupation.
      • Science & Technology: The acceptance of modern medicine and technologies like Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) indicates a shift away from purely religious or fatalistic worldviews.
      • Education: The content of modern education is largely secular and scientific, promoting rational thought over dogma.

    • Counter-trends (Arguments against Secularisation):

      • Religious Revivalism: Instead of declining, religion has shown remarkable resilience. There is a proliferation of new religious movements, gurus, and “godmen.”
      • Communalization of Politics: Religion has become a powerful tool for political mobilization, leading to increased communal tensions and identity politics.
      • Role of Media: Social media and television have provided new platforms for religious discourse and cultural revivalism, often amplifying religious identities.
      • Persistence of Tradition: Despite modernization, many individuals continue to adhere to traditional rituals related to birth, marriage, and death. Caste endogamy remains extremely high, indicating the continued hold of traditional social structures.
      • Sanskritization: As described by M.N. Srinivas, lower castes often emulate the rituals and practices of upper castes to improve their social standing. This process reinforces, rather than weakens, traditional religious norms.
      • Identity Politics: In a globalized world, people often turn to religion and culture as anchors for their identity, leading to a “re-sacralization” of society rather than secularisation.

Prelims Pointers

  • Ethnonationalism: A political ideology where an ethnic group seeks self-determination or sovereignty.
  • Sri Lankan Civil War Example:
    • Ceylon Citizenship Act: 1948
    • Sinhala Only Act: 1956
    • The war was between the Sri Lankan government (dominated by Sinhalese) and the LTTE (representing Tamil aspirations).
  • Unity in Diversity: The concept was prominently used by Jawaharlal Nehru in his book The Discovery of India.
  • Char Dham: Badrinath (North), Puri (East), Dwarka (West), Rameswaram (South). Established by Adi Shankaracharya.
  • Secularism (Constitutional Provisions):
    1. The term “Secular” was added to the Preamble by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976.
    2. Article 25: Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice, and propagation of religion.
    3. Article 29: Protection of interests of minorities (right to conserve their distinct language, script or culture).
    4. Article 30: Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions.
    5. Article 44: Directive Principle to secure for the citizens a Uniform Civil Code (UCC).
  • Models of Secularism:
    • USA: “Wall of separation” metaphor by Thomas Jefferson. Based on the First Amendment.
    • France: Concept known as ‘Laïcité’. Formalized by the 1905 law on separation of Church and State.
    • India: Characterized by “Principled Distance,” a concept given by political theorist Rajeev Bhargava. It is a form of “Positive Secularism.”
  • Key Supreme Court Case: In S. R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994), the Supreme Court declared secularism to be a part of the “basic structure” of the Constitution.
  • Secularisation: A sociological process of declining social significance of religion, associated with modernisation.
  • Sanskritization: A concept given by sociologist M.N. Srinivas.

Mains Insights

Ethnonationalism

  • Cause-Effect Relationship: Ethnonationalism is not an inherent trait of ethnic groups but a political outcome of perceived relative deprivation. The root causes often lie in economic inequality, political marginalization, and cultural suppression by a dominant group. The state’s response is crucial: policies of assimilation can fuel antagonism, while policies of accommodation and power-sharing can mitigate conflict.
  • Indian Context: India has faced ethno-nationalist movements, particularly in the North-East (e.g., Naga, Mizo movements) and Punjab (Khalistan movement). Understanding the process of ethnonationalism is key to analyzing the causes of internal security challenges and formulating policies that address the grievances of ethnic minorities through political and economic inclusion.

Unity in Diversity

  • Debate: Ideal vs. Reality: While “Unity in Diversity” is a foundational national ideal, its practical application is constantly challenged. The rise of communalism, regionalism, and linguistic chauvinism poses a significant threat.
  • Historiographical Viewpoint: Nationalist historians view it as an organic, historical reality of India. Subaltern and critical historians, however, might argue that it is a state-sponsored narrative constructed by the elite to manage dissent and create a hegemonic Indian identity that sometimes overlooks internal contradictions and power imbalances (e.g., between castes or between the center and periphery).
  • Contemporary Relevance: In GS-I (Indian Society), this concept is central to questions on regionalism, communalism, and national integration. It forces an analysis of the centripetal (unifying) and centrifugal (divisive) forces operating in Indian society.

Secularism

  • Debate: Western vs. Indian Secularism: A major academic debate revolves around whether Indian secularism is an authentic, indigenous concept or a flawed Western import.
    • T.N. Madan and Ashis Nandy have critiqued secularism as an ideology unsuited to the deeply religious societies of South Asia, arguing it is a product of the modern state that marginalizes traditional modes of tolerance.
    • Rajeev Bhargava, in contrast, defends the Indian model, arguing that its “principled distance” is a creative adaptation suited to India’s unique context of deep religious pluralism and historical intra-religious hierarchies (like the caste system), which a strict Western “wall of separation” model could not address.
  • Analytical Perspective (GS-II Polity): The concept of “Principled Distance” can be used to analyze the role of the judiciary and the state. Has the state’s intervention been truly “principled” or politically motivated? For instance, the differential pace of reforms across religions and the contentious issue of the Uniform Civil Code (UCC) are often debated through this lens. Is the state’s reluctance to implement a UCC a principled protection of minority rights or a case of political appeasement?
  • Secularism vs. Communalism (GS-I Society): These are opposing ideologies. Secularism advocates for separating religion from politics and treating all citizens equally regardless of faith. Communalism involves mobilizing people on the basis of a religious identity, promoting antagonism against other religious groups for political ends. The rise of communal politics is the single biggest threat to the Indian model of secularism.

Secularisation

  • The Secularisation Thesis in India: The classic Western “secularisation thesis” (that modernisation inevitably leads to the decline of religion) does not seem to hold true for India in a straightforward manner.
  • Cause-Effect Analysis: In India, modernisation and globalisation have had a paradoxical effect. While they have promoted secularisation in some domains (e.g., the economy, law), they have also fueled religious revivalism. The anxieties of modern life, identity politics, and the use of modern technology (social media, TV channels) have given religion new life and public visibility.
  • Mains Question Application: When asked “Is India becoming more religious or more secular?”, a nuanced answer is required. One must argue that different spheres of Indian life are secularising at different rates. The public/political sphere may see a resurgence of religion (communalisation), while the personal/economic sphere may be increasingly rational and secular. The process is not linear but complex and contradictory.

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