GS Notes

1.4 - Society Notes 13

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Elaborate Notes

MIGRATION

Migration is a fundamental demographic process involving the movement of people across space. It is a complex phenomenon influenced by a combination of economic, social, political, and environmental factors.

  • Definition: In demographic studies, migration is the spatial or geographical mobility of a population involving a change of usual residence from one defined geographical unit to another for a considerable period.

    • The United Nations defines a migrant as an individual who has resided in a foreign country for more than one year irrespective of the causes, voluntary or involuntary, and the means, regular or irregular, used to migrate.
    • Census of India (2011): Adopts a more specific definition for internal migration. A person is considered a migrant if their place of birth is different from their place of enumeration (place of birth criterion) or if their place of last residence is different from their place of enumeration (place of last residence criterion). This definition is crucial for capturing the scale of internal mobility in India.

  • Types of Migration:

    • a) On the basis of duration:

      • 1) Permanent Migration: This involves a long-term or permanent change of residence, where the migrant has no immediate intention of returning to their place of origin. This is often associated with international migration for settlement or internal migration for permanent employment, for instance, a tech professional moving from Bihar to Bengaluru.
      • 2) Semi-permanent Migration: This category describes migrants who move for a long period but are eventually compelled to return to their source region. The return is not voluntary but forced by circumstances such as the high cost of living, loss of employment, or a significant decline in their quality of life in the destination area. This reflects the precariousness of migrant life in urban centres.
      • 3) Temporary/Seasonal/Circular Migration: This form of migration is characterized by its short-term and repetitive nature, often tied to economic cycles.
        • In source areas, particularly agrarian regions, employment is often seasonal. During the agricultural ‘lean season’ (when there is little work on farms), individuals and families migrate to destination areas (cities, construction sites, other agricultural belts) for temporary employment.
        • Once the lean season is over or the temporary work is complete, they voluntarily return to their source region. This circular movement is a crucial livelihood strategy for millions.
        • Jan Breman, a renowned sociologist, extensively studied this phenomenon among tribal communities in Gujarat, terming it the “footloose proletariat,” highlighting their constant movement in search of work.
        • Capturing this fluid movement in official data is extremely challenging. The Economic Survey of India 2016-17 made a significant attempt to estimate this, suggesting there were around 139 million seasonal or circular migrants in the country, a figure far higher than previous estimates.

    • b) On the basis of destination (Internal/Domestic Migration):

      • Internal migration is the movement of people within the national boundaries of a country. As per the Census 2011, India had over 450 million internal migrants, constituting about 37% of the total population. The four major streams are:
        • Rural-Rural (62%): This is the largest stream of internal migration in India. The primary reason for this is marriage, where women move from their natal village to their husband’s village. It also includes migration for agricultural labour, especially during peak sowing or harvesting seasons.
        • Rural-Urban (20%): This stream is what is commonly understood as Urbanization. It is predominantly driven by economic factors, with people moving from villages to cities in search of better employment, education, and quality of life.
        • Urban-Urban (13%): This involves movement from one urban centre to another, often for better career opportunities, higher education, or improved lifestyle. For example, moving from a Tier-II city like Lucknow to a metropolis like Mumbai.
        • Urban-Rural (5%): This is a smaller but significant stream, often termed De-urbanization or counter-urbanization. It can be driven by factors like retirement, the high cost of urban living, or returning to one’s roots after acquiring skills and capital. The COVID-19 pandemic saw a temporary surge in this stream.
      • Statistics & Trends:
        • Feminization of Migration: Census 2011 data shows that about 68% of all internal migrants are women, primarily due to marriage being a major reason for migration. However, there is a growing trend of women migrating for economic reasons as well.
        • The Migration in India Report (July 2020 - June 2021) by the National Statistical Office (NSO) found an all-India migrant population of 28.9%. It highlighted that 47.9% of migrants moved for employment. The report also introduced the concept of ‘temporary visitors’ (staying for 15 days to 6 months), constituting 0.7% of the population, reflecting the complexity of mobility patterns.
        • Source and Destination Regions: The primary source regions for out-migration are economically less developed states with high population density, such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, and Odisha. The main destination regions are economically advanced states and metropolitan areas like Delhi, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.

CAUSES OF MIGRATION

The reasons for migration are often conceptualized through the “push and pull” framework, a model developed by geographer Everett S. Lee (1966). Push factors are negative conditions that compel people to leave their place of origin, while pull factors are positive attributes that attract them to a destination.

  • 1) Economic Causes:

    • Pull Factors:
      • Globalization: Increased integration of economies creates demand for diverse labour. The growth of IT, BPO, and manufacturing sectors in Indian cities, linked to global supply chains, acts as a powerful magnet for skilled and unskilled labour.
      • Urbanization & Industrialization: The concentration of industries and services in urban areas creates a vast number of job opportunities. Cities also offer better infrastructure (transport, electricity), services (healthcare, banking), and educational institutions, which pull people from rural areas.
      • Commercialization of Agriculture: While it can be a push factor, in some regions (like Punjab, Western UP), it has created a demand for migrant agricultural labour for specialized, intensive farming, thus acting as a pull factor for workers from states like Bihar and Eastern UP.
    • Push Factors:
      • Agricultural Distress: This is a major push factor in rural India. It includes issues like fragmentation of landholdings, low productivity, debt, soil degradation, and uncertainty of monsoon, making agriculture unviable for many small and marginal farmers.
      • Lack of Alternative Employment: The rural non-farm sector has not grown sufficiently to absorb the surplus labour from agriculture, forcing people to migrate.
      • Low Remuneration: Low wages in agriculture and lack of year-round employment push people to seek higher and more regular incomes in urban areas.
    • Pull Back Factors: These are developments in the source region that encourage migrants to return or discourage potential migrants from leaving.
      • This includes government interventions like MGNREGA, which provides a rural employment guarantee. The development of ‘Counter Magnets’—satellite towns or alternative growth centres like Gurugram and Noida near Delhi—is a planned strategy to divert migrant flows from megacities and sometimes pull people back to regions closer to their origin.
    • Push Back Factors: These are negative conditions in the destination area that discourage further migration or push existing migrants away.
      • These include urban problems like overcrowding, congestion, high cost of living, proliferation of slums, and a poor quality of life. The struggle to find adequate and affordable housing, water, and sanitation pushes people back or deters new arrivals.

  • 2) Socio-cultural Causes:

    • Pull Factors:
      • Good Governance and Stability: Regions with stable political systems, rule of law, and efficient public service delivery attract migrants seeking security and a predictable environment.
      • Political Freedom and Safety: The promise of democratic participation, freedom of expression, and security from persecution or conflict acts as a powerful pull. This is more prominent in international migration but also applies internally where people may move from conflict-affected regions to more peaceful ones.
    • Push Factors:
      • Poor Governance and Political Instability: Lack of effective government policies, corruption, and social or political unrest can push people out.
      • State-led Persecution or Social Discrimination: Discrimination based on caste, religion, or ethnicity can act as a potent push factor, forcing marginalized communities to seek refuge and anonymity in large, diverse cities.
    • Pull Back Factors: Positive political changes in the source region, such as the election of a government perceived to be favourable to a particular community, can encourage return migration.
    • Push Back Factors:
      • ‘Son of the Soil’ Theory: This nativist ideology promotes the idea that the “native” inhabitants of a state or region have a preferential claim over jobs and resources. This can manifest as political movements and social hostility against migrants, creating an insecure environment and pushing them back. This has been a recurrent political theme in states like Maharashtra (against North Indians) and Assam (against Bengali speakers).

CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION

Migration has profound and multifaceted consequences for the source region, the destination region, and the migrants themselves.

  • A) Consequences for the Source Region:

    • Economic:
      • Positive: Remittances sent by migrants are a major source of income, improving the standard of living, facilitating investment in agriculture, education, and healthcare, and acting as a social safety net.
      • Negative: Brain Drain, where the most skilled and educated individuals leave, depleting the human capital of the region. However, if migration is balanced across genders and skill levels, the loss of human resources is mitigated by the inflow of remittances.
    • Demographic:
      • It leads to a change in the demographic structure, typically leaving behind an older population, women, and children. This results in an increased dependency ratio.
      • Feminization of the Workforce/Agriculture: As men migrate, women take on greater roles in agriculture and managing the household, which increases their workload but can also enhance their decision-making power.
      • Ghost Hamlets: In regions with very high out-migration, entire villages can become depopulated, with only the elderly remaining, leading to the phenomenon of ‘ghost hamlets’ or ‘ghost villages’, as seen in parts of Uttarakhand.
    • Socio-cultural:
      • Migration acts as a channel for the diffusion of new ideas and social norms from urban to rural areas. Migrants often bring back progressive ideas about family planning, girls’ education, health, and technology.
      • However, it can also lead to the disintegration of the joint family system and social isolation for those left behind. The long-term absence of male members can sometimes increase the vulnerability of women to violence or exploitation.

  • B) Consequences for the Destination Region:

    • Economic: Migrants provide a crucial supply of labour, often for jobs that locals are unwilling to do (the ‘3D’ jobs - dirty, dangerous, and difficult), fueling economic growth in sectors like construction, manufacturing, and services.
    • Demographic & Social:
      • Cultural Diversity & Cosmopolitanism: Migration contributes to the creation of a multicultural, cosmopolitan society, enriching the cultural fabric of cities.
      • Social Tensions: Unregulated migration puts immense pressure on urban infrastructure like housing, water, transport, and healthcare, leading to the proliferation of slums. Competition for scarce resources can lead to social friction and inter-community conflicts. It can fuel the ‘politics of nativism’ or the ‘son of the soil’ movements.
      • Skewed Sex Ratio: Male-selective migration to cities for work can lead to a skewed sex ratio in urban areas.

  • C) Impact on Migrants:

    • a) Positive Impacts:
      • Social Mobility: Migration offers an opportunity to escape rigid caste and social hierarchies of the village and achieve upward social mobility.
      • Increased Social Capital: Migrants build new networks and communities in destination areas, which can provide support and opportunities.
      • Broader Horizons: Exposure to new cultures and ideas can lead to increased social tolerance and openness to innovation.
    • b) Negative Impacts:
      • Exclusion and Exploitation: Migrants, especially the unskilled and uneducated, are often caught in exploitative labour arrangements. They face poor working conditions, a lack of social security benefits (like health insurance or pensions), and wages below the legal minimum.
      • Political Exclusion: Lack of proper documentation (like address proof) in the destination city often prevents them from accessing government schemes, PDS benefits, and voting rights. This political invisibility leads to them being termed ‘ghost citizens’ or ‘citizens without a city’.
      • Social and Cultural Alienation: Migrants can face an identity crisis, caught between their traditional values and the modern lifestyle of the city. They are often victims of discrimination and prejudice.
      • Poor Living Conditions: They are often forced to live in overcrowded and unhygienic slums, with constant threats of eviction and poor health outcomes.
      • Educational Disadvantage: As per Census 2011, migrant literacy rates are often low. A significant statistic points out that almost 80% of the children of seasonal migrants lack access to education, perpetuating an intergenerational cycle of poverty.

WAY FORWARD

Addressing the challenges of migration requires a comprehensive and humane policy framework.

  • Policy Integration: Mainstream the concerns of migrants into national and state-level development plans, particularly in sectors like housing, health, and education.
  • Data and Research:
    • Revise the design of the Census and other national surveys (like NSS) to collect more granular, sex and age-disaggregated data on migration, especially seasonal migration.
    • Conduct nationwide mapping of migration corridors (source-destination links).
    • Encourage state-level research institutes to create detailed State Migration Profiles.
  • Institutional Mechanisms:
    • Create dedicated Migrant Labour Cells in the Labour Department of every state to address grievances and ensure welfare.
    • Establish Inter-state and Inter-district coordination committees to manage migrant flows and ensure seamless delivery of services across administrative boundaries.
    • Empower Panchayati Raj Institutions to maintain a database of migrant workers, which can help in targeted welfare delivery.
  • Legal and Social Protection:
    • Prioritize the effective implementation of existing laws like the Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act, 1979 (now subsumed under the Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020).
    • Conduct sensitization and training programs for policymakers, government officials, and employers on the rights and vulnerabilities of migrants.
  • Source Area Development: Invest in the development of source regions by promoting rural non-farm employment and improving infrastructure to reduce distress-driven migration.

POPULATION POLICY

  • Concept: A population policy refers to a set of deliberate and purposeful measures undertaken by a government to affect demographic processes, namely fertility, mortality, and migration, to achieve specific economic, social, and political objectives.

  • Types:

    • a) Anti-natalist Policy: Aims to reduce the birth rate (fertility) to control population growth. Most of India’s population policies have been anti-natalist in nature.
    • b) Pro-natalist Policy: Aims to encourage higher birth rates, often implemented in countries with aging populations and low fertility rates (e.g., Japan, France).
    • c) Distributional Policy: Aims to influence the spatial distribution of the population, for example, by checking the over-concentration in large cities and promoting development in other regions (e.g., developing counter-magnets).

EVOLUTION OF POPULATION POLICY IN INDIA

  • a) Pre-independence:

    • The British colonial administration followed a policy of indifference towards population issues.
    • However, Indian nationalist leaders and intellectuals began to show concern. The Radhakamal Mukherjee Committee (1940s), appointed by the Indian National Congress, recommended self-control, access to cheap birth control measures, and an increase in the age of marriage.
    • The Bhore Committee (1946), while focused on health, also recommended ‘purposeful intervention’ in population matters.

  • b) Post-Independence:

    • 1947-51 (Period of Neutrality): The newly independent government was preoccupied with pressing issues like post-partition rehabilitation, national integration (e.g., the Kashmir issue), and state-building, leaving little room for a formal population policy.
    • 1951-61 (Period of Experimentation): India became the first country in the world to launch a state-sponsored National Family Planning Programme in 1952. It adopted a ‘Clinical Approach’, which was passive in nature. The government set up clinics, and it was assumed that motivated couples would voluntarily seek out family planning services. This approach had limited success.
    • 1961-71 (Period of Active Intervention): The approach shifted from passive to active.
      • Extension Approach: The focus moved to educating people about the benefits of small families and the available contraceptive methods.
      • Cafeteria Approach: This offered a range of contraceptive choices (IUDs, sterilization, condoms), leaving the ultimate decision to the individual couple.
      • Selective Approach: A targeted approach was adopted, focusing on couples in the high-fertility age group of 25-35.
    • First National Population Policy (1976): The 1971 Census revealed a high decadal growth rate of 24.8%, leading to a more assertive policy during the National Emergency.
      • The program was renamed from ‘Family Planning’ to ‘Family Welfare’ to integrate it with broader health and maternal care.
      • The minimum legal age of marriage was increased to 18 for girls and 21 for boys.
      • It heavily promoted voluntary sterilization with monetary incentives, but this program became infamous for its coercive implementation in many states.
      • It emphasized the use of media for awareness and the introduction of ‘Population Education’ in the school curriculum.

  • Population Education:

    • Concept: It is an educational process designed to help individuals understand the nature, causes, and consequences of population dynamics and their impact on individuals, families, communities, and the nation.
    • Objectives:
      • To develop an understanding of demographic concepts (birth rate, death rate, TFR).
      • To understand the relationship between population growth and socio-economic development.
      • To appreciate the benefits of a small family norm as a matter of informed choice.
      • To create awareness about reproductive health and family welfare policies.
    • Implementation in India:
      • The National Population Education Project (NPEP) was launched in 1980 with support from UNFPA to integrate population education into the formal school system.
      • The National Policy on Education (NPE) of 1986 formally incorporated population education as a core element.
      • Programs like the Adolescent and Reproductive and Sexual Health (ARSH) were launched.
      • The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 includes family welfare and planning as part of the curriculum for adult education.

NATIONAL POPULATION POLICY 2000 (NPP 2000)

NPP 2000 marked a paradigm shift from a target-based to a rights-based, holistic approach. It was heavily influenced by the report of the M.S. Swaminathan Committee (1994).

  • M.S. Swaminathan Committee Recommendations (1993-94): The committee advocated for a move away from coercion and demographic targets. It emphasized:

    • Discouraging monetary incentives for sterilization, as they can be coercive.
    • Shifting the focus from female-centric methods like tubectomy to a broader range of choices and male participation.
    • Promoting democratic, decentralized, and participatory interventions, moving away from a one-size-fits-all approach.
    • Linking population stabilization to women’s empowerment, health, and socio-economic development.

  • Objectives and Targets of NPP 2000:

    • Immediate Target: To address the unmet needs for contraception, healthcare infrastructure, and personnel, and to provide integrated service delivery for basic reproductive and child health (RCH) care.
    • Mid-Term Target: To reduce the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) to replacement level, i.e., TFR of 2.1, by the year 2010.
    • Long-Term Target: To achieve a stable population by 2045, at a level consistent with the requirements of sustainable economic growth, social development, and environmental protection. (This target year has since been revised to 2070).

  • Need for a New Population Policy: Despite the success of NPP 2000 in reducing TFR (India’s TFR is now 2.0 as per NFHS-5), new challenges necessitate a revised policy.

    • Persisting Health Challenges: While IMR and MMR have declined, they remain high in certain states and social groups. Reasons include high fertility leading to maternal depletion, lack of safe WASH (Water, Sanitation, Hygiene), and inadequate healthcare infrastructure.
    • Skewed Sex Ratio at Birth: Despite an improvement in the overall sex ratio, the child sex ratio and sex ratio at birth remain a concern due to the persistence of son preference and sex-selective abortion.
    • Migration and Urbanization: The increasing scale of internal migration is creating immense pressure on urban infrastructure and social cohesion, which a population policy must address from a distributional perspective.
    • Longevity Dividend: As life expectancy increases, India will have a large elderly population. A new policy must be designed to reap the benefits of this ‘longevity dividend’ by ensuring health, financial security, and productive engagement for the elderly.

In conclusion, a future population policy must move beyond fertility control and adopt a holistic, ‘piecemeal engineering’ approach. It needs to address the interconnected challenges of maternal and child health, gender inequality, migration, aging, and regional disparities in a decentralized and rights-based framework.

Prelims Pointers

  • Migrant (Census 2011): A person whose place of residence is different from their place of birth or place of last residence.
  • Seasonal Migrants (Economic Survey 2017): Estimated at approximately 139 million.
  • Internal Migrants (Census 2011): 450 million, constituting 37% of the total population.
  • Feminization of Migration: 68% of all internal migrants are women (Census 2011).
  • Largest Migration Stream: Rural-Rural migration (62% of internal migration).
  • Rural-Urban Migration Stream: 20% of internal migration.
  • Migration in India Report (2020-21): All-India migrant population was 28.9%.
  • Key Source States (Migration): Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan.
  • Key Destination States (Migration): Delhi, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka.
  • Counter Magnets: Planned urban centres to reduce population concentration (e.g., Gurugram, Noida).
  • ‘Son of the Soil’ Theory: Nativist ideology favouring locals over migrants for jobs and resources.
  • Ghost Citizens: A term for migrants who are politically and socially excluded in destination areas.
  • India’s First Family Planning Programme: Launched in 1952.
  • Cafeteria Approach: Providing a variety of family planning choices to individuals.
  • First Population Policy: Announced in 1976.
  • Legal Age of Marriage (1976 Policy): Increased to 18 for girls and 21 for boys.
  • National Population Education Project (NPEP): Launched in 1980.
  • M.S. Swaminathan Committee (1994): Recommended a shift from a target-based to a rights-based population policy.
  • National Population Policy (NPP) 2000:
    1. Mid-term Target: TFR of 2.1 by 2010.
    2. Long-term Target: Population stabilization by 2045 (now revised to 2070).
  • Current TFR (NFHS-5, 2019-21): 2.0, which is below the replacement level.
  • Longevity Dividend: The potential economic and social contribution of a healthy and productive elderly population.

Mains Insights

Migration Perspectives (GS-I, GS-II, GS-III)

  1. Migration as a Development Challenge and Opportunity:

    • Challenge (Cause-Effect): Distress-driven migration from agriculturally backward regions (Push Factor) leads to an oversupply of unskilled labour in cities. This results in the proliferation of slums, strains urban infrastructure, and creates a large, vulnerable informal workforce. This cycle perpetuates poverty and exclusion.
    • Opportunity: Migration is an engine of economic growth. Remittances form a significant part of the household income in source states (e.g., Kerala, Bihar), acting as a form of social security. Migrant labour is critical for urban sectors like construction, manufacturing, and services. The policy challenge is to manage migration, not restrict it.

  2. The Invisibility of the Migrant in Policy (Governance Issue):

    • Migrants are often ‘ghost citizens,’ lacking the political voice and social recognition to demand rights. Their exclusion from PDS, healthcare, and voting in destination areas is a critical governance failure.
    • Debate: The debate around ‘One Nation, One Ration Card’ and portable social security benefits directly addresses this issue. The challenge lies in inter-state coordination and building a robust database without infringing on privacy.

  3. Social Dimensions of Migration:

    • Debate (Nativism vs. Cosmopolitanism): While migration fosters a cosmopolitan culture in cities, it also fuels ‘Son of the Soil’ politics. This is often a result of perceived competition for scarce resources and jobs, creating a conflict between the constitutional right to move and reside freely (Article 19) and local identity politics.
    • Feminization of Migration: The analysis must go beyond marriage as the sole reason. It is crucial to examine the rising trend of women migrating for economic reasons and their specific vulnerabilities (e.g., exploitation in domestic work) and contributions (e.g., in the care economy and garment industry).

Population Policy Perspectives (GS-I, GS-II)

  1. Historiographical Shift in Population Policy:

    • Evolutionary Analysis: India’s population policy has evolved significantly. The initial ‘Clinical Approach’ (1950s) was passive. The 1970s saw a highly coercive, target-driven approach, which was counterproductive. The 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) in Cairo and the M.S. Swaminathan Committee were pivotal in shifting the global and national discourse from ‘population control’ to ‘reproductive health and rights’. NPP 2000 is a product of this rights-based, women-centric perspective.
    • This shift signifies a maturation of policy from treating people as demographic targets to viewing them as citizens with rights and agency.

  2. Population as a Subject of Political Debate:

    • Controversy: There is a recurring political debate over coercive measures like a mandatory two-child norm. Proponents argue it is necessary for development, while critics argue it is undemocratic, anti-poor, and anti-women, and could lead to unsafe abortions and a skewed sex ratio.
    • Analysis: The success in achieving a TFR of 2.0 without coercion validates the empowerment-based approach. The focus should be on addressing regional disparities (e.g., high TFR in UP, Bihar) through better health, education, and development, not coercive laws.

  3. The Need for a 21st-Century Population Policy:

    • Interconnectedness: A new policy cannot exist in a silo. It must be an integrated framework that addresses:
      • Aging: Preparing for the ‘longevity dividend’ and creating social security for the elderly.
      • Migration: Developing policies for orderly and safe internal migration.
      • Gender: Tackling the persistent issue of son preference and skewed sex ratio at birth.
      • Regional Imbalances: Focusing interventions in high-fertility states.
    • The goal is no longer just population stabilization but achieving broader human development goals in the context of India’s changing demographic structure.

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