GS Notes

1.4 - Society Notes 14

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Elaborate Notes

URBANIZATION

Urbanization is a multifaceted socio-economic process involving a significant shift in a society’s population distribution. It is academically defined as the process by which an increasing proportion of a country’s population comes to live in cities and towns. This phenomenon extends beyond mere demographic movement.

  • Definition and Scope:

    • Residential Movement: The primary component is the migration of people from rural to urban settlements, driven by ‘push’ factors (e.g., agrarian distress, lack of opportunities) and ‘pull’ factors (e.g., employment, education, better amenities).
    • Occupational Change: It signifies a structural shift in the economy, away from agriculture towards industrial, service, and knowledge-based sectors. This transition is a hallmark of economic development, as noted by economists like W. Arthur Lewis in his Dual Sector Model (1954).
    • Value System Transformation: Urbanization brings about profound changes in social values, norms, and lifestyles. This ideological and cultural shift is encapsulated in the concept of ‘Urbanism’.

  • Urbanism: Coined and extensively analysed by sociologist Louis Wirth in his seminal essay “Urbanism as a Way of Life” (1938), urbanism refers to the distinct social and cultural patterns that emerge in cities. Wirth argued that the size, density, and heterogeneity of urban populations are key variables that shape this way of life. Its characteristics include:

    • Complex division of labour: Urban economies are characterized by high levels of specialization, creating a vast array of occupations, as opposed to the more homogenous occupational structure of rural societies. This was a key observation in Emile Durkheim’s work, “The Division of Labour in Society” (1893), where he contrasted the ‘mechanical solidarity’ of simple societies with the ‘organic solidarity’ of complex, urban societies.
    • High level of technology: Cities are hubs of technological innovation and adoption, which permeates production, communication, and daily life.
    • Economic interdependence: Specialization necessitates a high degree of interdependence among individuals and institutions for goods and services.
    • High opportunity for social mobility: Urban areas offer greater avenues for upward social mobility through education and diverse employment, allowing individuals to move beyond the rigid social structures often found in rural settings.
    • Impersonality in social relationships: Social interactions tend to be instrumental, transient, and superficial, based on roles rather than deep personal bonds. German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies contrasted this urban ‘Gesellschaft’ (society) with the rural ‘Gemeinschaft’ (community).
    • Anonymity and heterogeneity: The presence of a large, diverse population leads to anonymity, which can be liberating but also lead to social isolation. The city is a mosaic of different social, ethnic, and cultural groups.
    • Individualism: Urban life emphasizes individual achievement, freedom, and choice, often at the expense of collective ties and community control.

Types of Urbanization

  • a) Over-Urbanization:

    • This term describes a situation where the rate of urbanization outpaces the rate of industrialization and economic development. Coined by scholars in the mid-20th century to describe trends in developing nations, it implies that cities are growing due to rural ‘push’ factors rather than urban ‘pull’ from a robust industrial base.
    • Consequences:
      • Population Pressure & Resource Crunch: The urban infrastructure (housing, water, sanitation, transport) cannot cope with the influx of people, leading to a severe strain on resources.
      • Discrepancy in Demand and Supply: A surplus of unskilled labour leads to high unemployment and underemployment in the informal sector.
      • Economic Strain: Skyrocketing real estate prices and a high cost of living make life difficult for the majority, leading to a declining quality of life and the proliferation of slums.
    • Scholarly Debate: While widely used, scholars like N.V. Sovani (“The Analysis of ‘Over-Urbanization’”, 1966) argued that the concept was flawed and that the urban growth in countries like India was a rational response to economic conditions, not a pathological deviation.

  • b) Sub-urbanisation:

    • This is the process of population and economic activity moving from the central city to the outlying areas, or suburbs. Historically, this trend accelerated in the West, particularly the United States after World War II, fueled by the development of highways and the availability of affordable housing.
    • Driving Conditions:
      • High Urban Core Costs: Exorbitant real estate prices and congestion in the city centre push people outwards.
      • Development of Public Transport: Efficient rail and road networks make commuting from the suburbs to the city centre feasible. The expansion of metro networks in Indian cities like Delhi and Bengaluru has fueled this trend.
      • Emergence of New Work Culture: The rise of telecommuting and work-from-home (WFH) models, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, has decoupled residence from the workplace, making suburban living more attractive.

  • c) Urban Sprawl:

    • This refers to the uncontrolled, unplanned, and low-density outward expansion of a city into surrounding rural lands. It is distinct from suburbanization, which can be a more planned and organized process.
    • Characteristics: It is often characterized by single-family homes on large lots, dependency on private automobiles for transportation, and a clear separation of residential, commercial, and industrial zones.
    • Consequences:
      • Environmental Degradation: Loss of agricultural land and natural habitats.
      • Pollution and Traffic Congestion: Increased automobile use leads to higher air pollution and chronic traffic problems.
      • Decline in Community Living: The low-density, dispersed settlement pattern can weaken community ties and social interaction.

  • d) Counter Urbanization:

    • This is a demographic and social process where people migrate from large urban areas to smaller towns and rural areas, reversing the historical trend of urbanization. This phenomenon was first systematically studied by geographer Brian Berry in the 1970s in the context of developed nations.
    • Drivers: It is driven by a desire to escape inner-city problems like congestion, pollution, crime, and a high cost of living, in search of a better quality of life, more space, and a closer connection to nature.
    • Example in India: The “farmhouse culture” among the affluent in the peripheries of major metropolitan cities is a manifestation of this trend, albeit limited to a small segment of the population.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH URBANIZATION

India’s urbanization has been rapid but often chaotic, leading to a host of complex challenges.

  • Statistical Context (India):

    • Census 2011: Urban population stood at 31.18%.
    • Housing & Basic Services: According to various reports around the same period, 17% of the urban population lived in slums, 13% lacked access to sanitation, and 30% lacked safe drinking water.
    • Urban Poverty: The C. Rangarajan Panel Report (2014) estimated that 26.4% of the urban population was Below the Poverty Line (BPL).
    • Future Projections: The World Bank has projected that by 2035, a majority of the world’s extremely poor will be concentrated in urban areas, highlighting the urgency of addressing urban poverty.

  • a) Problems with respect to housing and Slums:

    • UN-Habitat Definition: A slum is a residential area in an urban locality inhabited by the very poor who have no access to tenured land of their own, and who are characterized by dwellings of poor structural quality and lack of access to basic services.
    • Improper City Planning: Many Indian cities have expanded organically without a master plan, constrained by historical layouts (e.g., the horizontal expansion of Delhi around historical monuments). This leads to inefficient land use.
    • Policy and Implementation Gaps:
      • An expert group for the 12th Five Year Plan noted that slum proliferation is less a result of migration and more a result of systemic failure of housing policies.
      • The National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy (2007), which mandated reserving 10-15% of land in new projects for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS), has been poorly implemented.
      • Schemes like In-Situ Slum Rehabilitation (ISSR) under the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Urban (PMAY-U) have faced implementation challenges due to land acquisition issues and lack of private developer interest.
    • Gated Communities & Social Exclusion: The rise of gated communities for the affluent creates “islands of privilege,” a form of voluntary segregation that reduces the available land pool for affordable social housing and deepens urban inequality. This phenomenon has been studied by sociologists like Saskia Sassen in the context of global cities.
    • Reasons for the Persistence of Slums:
      • Political Economy: Slum dwellers form a significant and politically active vote bank, making eviction politically sensitive.
      • Economic Symbiosis: They provide a vast pool of cheap, informal labour for the urban economy. This creates a quid-pro-quo between residents and informal employers, where low living costs for dwellers translate to low labour costs for employers.
      • Culture of Poverty: Some scholars, like Oscar Lewis, have argued that a “sub-culture of poverty” can develop in slums, characterized by a lack of aspiration and relative deprivation, which perpetuates the cycle. This view is highly contested for being deterministic.
      • Governance Failure: Bureaucratic apathy, corruption, and a lack of accountability in urban local bodies contribute significantly to the persistence and growth of informal settlements. Slums, once seen as a temporary by-product of migration, have become a permanent structural feature of the Indian urban landscape.

  • b) Socio-cultural Problems:

    • Residential Segregation: Cities often exhibit spatial segregation based on primordial identities like caste, religion, and ethnicity, leading to the formation of ghettos and enclaves. This pattern can exacerbate social tensions and lead to a spatial pattern in communal violence.
    • Crime and Deviance: Slums are often stereotyped as dens of “pathological behaviour” like gang violence, vandalism, and drug abuse. While crime rates can be high due to poverty and lack of opportunities, this view often ignores the strong social networks and economic vitality within these communities. The feeling of relative deprivation—the perception of being unfairly disadvantaged compared to others—can be a strong driver of conflict and crime.
    • Corrosion of Value System: Drawing from Robert K. Merton’s Strain Theory (1938), the intense focus on material success (cultural goals) in cities, coupled with a lack of legitimate opportunities (institutional means) for many, can lead to anomie and deviant behaviour, including abuse against vulnerable sections.
    • Disintegration of Family and Community:
      • The shift from joint to nuclear families weakens traditional mechanisms of primary socialization and social control, contributing to issues like juvenile delinquency and neglect of the elderly.
      • Urban anonymity and individualism, as theorized by Georg Simmel in “The Metropolis and Mental Life” (1903), can lead to social isolation, mental health issues (anxiety, depression), and phenomena like “bystander apathy”.
    • Violence Against Women: The breakdown of community support systems, coupled with the stresses of urban life, can increase the vulnerability of women to domestic and public violence.
    • Westernization and Consumerism: The globalized urban environment promotes consumerism, potentially leading to a loss of traditional values and the commodification of culture and relationships.

  • c) Gentrification:

    • This is a process of urban renewal where affluent individuals and businesses move into historically lower-income neighbourhoods. This influx drives up property values and rents, displacing the original, less affluent residents.
    • Process and Impact: Improved infrastructure and the “revitalization” of an area make it attractive to wealthier populations, leading to a change in the neighbourhood’s character and the socio-economic exclusion of the poor.
    • Indian Examples: Hauz Khas Village and Shahpur Jat in Delhi, and Lower Parel in Mumbai, have transformed from old urban villages or industrial areas into chic, high-end commercial and residential hubs, displacing original inhabitants.
    • Beautification and Exclusion: Urban beautification drives, such as the redevelopment of Chennai’s Marina Beach, have often resulted in the forced eviction of long-standing communities like fisherfolk, limiting their access to urban spaces and livelihoods.

  • d) Health and Environmental Issues:

    • Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs): Urban lifestyles—characterized by sedentary work, dependence on technology, consumption of processed foods (George Ritzer’s “McDonaldization”), and lack of green spaces—are major contributors to the rise of NCDs like obesity, diabetes, and hypertension.
    • Urbanization of Pandemics: The characteristics of cities—high population density, extensive transport networks, proliferation of slums with poor sanitation, and encroachment into natural habitats increasing human-wildlife contact—create ideal conditions for the rapid spread of infectious diseases, as witnessed during the COVID-19 pandemic.
    • Urban Pollution:
      • Air: According to the World Air Quality Report, Indian cities consistently rank among the world’s most polluted.
      • Water: Water bodies are heavily polluted by the dumping of untreated industrial and domestic waste. Leaky distribution networks and poor resource management exacerbate water scarcity and contamination.
      • Waste: Inefficient solid waste management is a critical challenge for almost all Indian cities.
    • Transportation: Inadequate road infrastructure, coupled with a rising number of vehicles, leads to chronic traffic congestion and a high rate of road accidents. The ‘Vision Zero’ initiative, originating in Sweden, which aims for zero fatalities or serious injuries in traffic, presents a holistic safety-first model for road system design.
    • Urban Flooding: Cities are often called ‘jungles of concrete’ due to excessive paving, which prevents rainwater seepage. This, combined with rapid and unplanned construction, encroachment on floodplains and water bodies (as seen in the 2015 Chennai floods and 2005 Mumbai floods), and poor drainage infrastructure, makes cities highly vulnerable to flooding. The lack of empowered urban governance, particularly the deficit in the 3Fs (Funds, Functions, and Functionaries) for Urban Local Bodies (ULBs), cripples their ability to manage these environmental challenges effectively.

WAY FORWARD

Addressing India’s urban challenges requires a multi-pronged, systemic approach focused on sustainable and inclusive development.

  • Inclusive Urban Spaces: Planning must prioritize the needs of all residents, including the urban poor, migrants, women, and the elderly, ensuring equitable access to housing, services, and public spaces.
  • Reform in Urban Administration:
    • There is a critical need to create a specialized municipal cadre of city administrators with expertise in urban planning and management.
    • Professional management of ULBs, insulated from excessive political interference, is essential for efficient service delivery. This requires fully implementing the spirit of the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992, by devolving the 3Fs.
  • Cascaded and Integrated Planning: A hierarchical planning structure is needed, where a long-term strategic vision for a city is broken down into medium-term master plans and short-term, actionable local area plans.
  • New Models of Development:
    • a) Transport-Oriented Development (TOD): This model emphasizes creating compact, walkable, mixed-use communities centered around high-quality public transport systems. By integrating land use and transport, it aims to reduce reliance on private vehicles, curb pollution, and promote sustainable mobility. The city of Curitiba, Brazil, is a globally acclaimed example.
    • b) Hub-Spoke Model: This regional planning model involves developing a major metropolitan city as a central ‘hub’ and promoting the growth of surrounding satellite towns as ‘spokes’. This decentralizes economic activity and population, de-congesting the main city. The National Capital Region (NCR) around Delhi, with spokes like Gurugram, Noida, and Ghaziabad, is an example of this model.
    • c) Sponge City Model: This is an innovative approach to urban flood management that uses ecological infrastructure to absorb, store, and purify rainwater. Instead of channeling water away through concrete drains, it utilizes green spaces like parks, rain gardens, green roofs, and permeable pavements to mimic the natural water cycle. This helps recharge groundwater and mitigate flooding. Several cities in China are actively implementing this model.
  • Innovative Funding: ULBs must move beyond traditional sources of revenue. This includes:
    • Public-Private Partnerships (PPP): For developing urban infrastructure.
    • Monetization of Land Assets: Using publicly owned land to generate revenue for development.
    • Property Tax Reforms: Improving assessment and collection efficiency.
    • Issuing Municipal Bonds: Raising capital from the market for specific projects, as demonstrated by cities like Pune and Indore.

Prelims Pointers

  • Census 2011 Data: Urban population in India is 31.18%.
  • Urban Poverty (C. Rangarajan Panel): 26.4% of the urban population is Below the Poverty Line (BPL).
  • Urban Deficits (Approx. 2011): 17% of the urban population lives in slums; 13% lacks sanitation access; 30% lacks safe drinking water.
  • UN-Habitat Slum Definition: A dwelling unfit for human habitation due to overcrowding, poor ventilation, and lack of basic resources.
  • Urbanism: A term associated with sociologist Louis Wirth, describing the distinct way of life in cities characterized by size, density, and heterogeneity.
  • Over-Urbanization: A state where the level of urbanization significantly exceeds the level of industrialization.
  • Sub-urbanisation: The growth of cities on their fringes, often driven by high real estate prices in the core and improved transport.
  • Urban Sprawl: Uncontrolled and unplanned outward expansion of a city.
  • Counter-Urbanization: Migration of people from urban to rural areas.
  • Gentrification: Displacement of low-income residents from a neighbourhood due to the influx of more affluent people.
  • National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy (2007): Recommended reserving 10-15% of land in housing projects for EWS/LIG housing.
  • Vision Zero: A road safety initiative that originated in Sweden with the core principle of preventing all fatalities and serious injuries in road traffic.
  • 3Fs in Governance: Refers to the devolution of Funds, Functions, and Functionaries to local government bodies, as envisioned in the 74th Constitutional Amendment.
  • Transport-Oriented Development (TOD): An urban planning model that integrates land use with public transportation.
  • Hub-Spoke Model: A regional development model with a central hub city and surrounding satellite towns (spokes).
  • Sponge City Model: An urban design approach for flood management using ecological infrastructure to absorb rainwater.

Mains Insights

The Urban Dichotomy: Engines of Growth vs. Spaces of Exclusion (GS Paper I)

  1. Engine of Growth: Urban centres are undeniably the engines of economic growth, contributing over 60% to India’s GDP. They are centres of innovation, commerce, and opportunity, attracting talent and investment.
  2. Spaces of Exclusion: However, this growth is often accompanied by deep inequality. The same city that houses high-tech parks and luxury apartments also contains sprawling slums lacking basic services. This creates a “dual city” phenomenon.
  3. Cause-Effect Analysis: The root cause is unplanned, exclusionary growth. The focus on capital-intensive development creates high-skilled jobs but fails to absorb the influx of low-skilled migrants, pushing them into the informal sector. Gentrification and rising property values systematically push the poor to the peripheries, creating spatial and social exclusion.
  4. Historiographical Viewpoint: Early urban theories saw slums as a temporary phase of transition. However, contemporary analysis views them as a permanent, structural outcome of the capitalist mode of urban development, which thrives on the availability of cheap informal labour.

Governance Deficit: The Achilles’ Heel of Indian Cities (GS Paper II)

  1. The 74th Amendment Paradox: The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act (1992) was a landmark step towards democratic decentralization. However, its implementation remains weak. State governments have been reluctant to devolve the ‘3Fs’—Funds, Functions, and Functionaries—to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs).
  2. Consequences of Weak ULBs:
    • Financial Starvation: Most ULBs are heavily dependent on state grants, lack financial autonomy, and have failed to explore revenue sources like property tax reform or municipal bonds effectively. This cripples their ability to invest in infrastructure.
    • Functional Overlap: There is a multiplicity of parastatal agencies (e.g., Development Authorities, Water Boards) operating in cities, leading to a lack of coordination and accountability. The elected ULB often has little control over key urban functions.
    • Capacity Deficit: ULBs lack trained technical and managerial staff (functionaries) to undertake complex urban planning and management tasks.
  3. The Way Forward: True empowerment of ULBs is non-negotiable for improving urban governance. This requires sincere political will from state governments, capacity building for municipal officials, and greater citizen participation through platforms like Ward Committees.

Sustainability and Livability: The New Urban Planning Paradigm (GS Paper III)

  1. From Concrete Jungles to Sustainable Ecosystems: The current model of urban development has proven environmentally unsustainable, leading to urban floods, extreme heat island effects, and severe pollution.
  2. The Need for a Paradigm Shift: The way forward lies in adopting new models that prioritize environmental sustainability and human well-being.
    • Cause-Effect: The cause of urban flooding is not just heavy rain, but the destruction of the urban ecosystem (concretization, encroachment of water bodies). The effect is widespread damage and disruption.
    • Solutions: Models like the ‘Sponge City’ offer a solution by integrating nature-based solutions into urban design. Similarly, promoting Transport-Oriented Development (TOD) can tackle the twin problems of congestion and air pollution.
  3. Circular Economy in Waste Management: Cities must move from a ‘linear’ (take-make-dispose) to a ‘circular’ model for waste management, focusing on reduction, reuse, recycling, and resource recovery. This is crucial for both environmental health and resource security.

Urbanism and its Impact on Social Fabric (GS Paper I & IV)

  1. Erosion of Social Capital: Urbanism, with its emphasis on individualism and anonymity, can lead to the erosion of community bonds and social capital. This manifests as social isolation, loneliness, and phenomena like ‘bystander apathy’.
    • Ethical Dimension (GS IV): Bystander apathy raises ethical questions about civic duty, compassion, and the moral responsibility of individuals in a collective setting. The decline of community vigilance can create a permissive environment for crime.
  2. Impact on Family: The transition to nuclear families in urban settings, while offering individual freedom, weakens the traditional support system. This increases the vulnerability of the elderly and children and places immense pressure on the family unit, contributing to marital discord and mental health issues.
  3. Value Systems in Flux: The intense competition and consumerist culture in cities can lead to a ‘corruption of the value system’, where material goals are pursued at any cost, potentially compromising ethical means. This can be linked to rising corruption and white-collar crime. The challenge is to foster urban environments that promote both economic dynamism and a strong ethical and social fabric.

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