1.3 - World History Notes 09

Elaborate Notes

COLONIALISM AND COLONISATION

Distinction between Colonialism and Imperialism

• Imperialism is an ancient phenomenon, primarily characterized by the extension of a state’s power and dominion through the acquisition of territories. It is often driven by military might and the desire for political dominance. As exemplified by the Roman Empire or the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the conquered territories might be ruled directly or indirectly, but the primary motive was often tribute, strategic advantage, and political prestige. The conquered society’s internal structures might not be fundamentally transformed.
• Colonialism, while a form of imperialism, is a more modern and complex phenomenon, largely a consequence of the European Industrial Revolution from the 18th century onwards. It involves not just political conquest and administration but a comprehensive and systematic transformation of the colony’s economy, society, and culture to serve the interests of the colonizing power (the metropole). As argued by scholars like J.A. Hobson in his work “Imperialism: A Study” (1902) and V.I. Lenin in “Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism” (1917), modern colonialism was inextricably linked to the economic imperatives of capitalism. It entails the establishment of settlements, direct governance, and a deep-seated economic integration where the colony is restructured to become a supplier of raw materials and a market for finished goods.

The Evolving Nature of Colonialism: The Three Stages

Colonialism was not a monolithic or static process. Its ideology and implementation evolved based on the changing economic needs of the metropole. Historians, particularly those studying British colonialism in India like Bipan Chandra, have identified three distinct stages:

1. Stage of Mercantile Capitalism (approx. 16th to early 19th Century):

   • Objective: The primary objective was profit through trade monopoly and plunder. Colonial powers, represented by chartered companies like the British East India Company or the Dutch East India Company (VOC), sought to eliminate competitors and purchase colonial goods (spices, textiles, etc.) at the lowest possible price to sell at high profits in Europe.
   • Methods: This stage was marked by direct appropriation of revenue and outright plunder. There was no significant interference in the colony’s internal production systems or administration, as long as the economic surplus could be extracted. For instance, the British East India Company’s primary goal after the Battle of Plassey (1757) was to use the Diwani rights of Bengal to finance its “investments” (purchases) and drain wealth back to Britain.

2. Stage of Industrial Capitalism (approx. 19th Century):

   • Objective: Driven by the Industrial Revolution in Europe, the objective shifted. The metropole now needed the colony to be a source of cheap raw materials (e.g., cotton from India for Manchester’s mills, rubber from Malaya) and a captive market for its mass-produced manufactured goods.
   • Methods: This required a more interventionist policy. The colony’s economy was actively transformed into a subordinate, “colonial economy.” This involved a systematic policy of de-industrialization, where native industries (like the Indian textile industry) were destroyed through tariffs and unequal competition. To facilitate deeper penetration and exploitation, infrastructure like railways, telegraphs, and postal systems were developed. These were not for the benefit of the natives but, as nationalist critics like Dadabhai Naoroji pointed out in his “Drain Theory,” were tools for efficient resource extraction and market access.

3. Stage of Financial Capitalism (late 19th to 20th Century):

   • Objective: In this phase, large industrial and financial monopolies in the metropole sought new avenues for investing their surplus capital. The colonies became prime destinations for this capital export.
   • Methods: Capital was invested in infrastructure (railways, ports), plantations (tea, coffee, rubber), and mining. This led to a more complete control over the colony’s economy. The colonial state often provided guarantees and favourable terms to metropolitan investors, further integrating the colonial economy with the global capitalist system, but in a subservient position. This stage is closely aligned with Lenin’s analysis, where the merger of bank capital and industrial capital creates a “finance oligarchy” that dominates the global economy through capital export.

Early Colonizers: Portugal and Spain

The age of colonialism was initiated by Portugal and Spain in the 15th and 16th centuries, fueled by new geographical discoveries. Their motives are famously summarized as the “3 G’s”:

• Gold: The search for precious metals (gold, silver) and new trade routes to the East to bypass the Ottoman control over the traditional land routes. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires, leading to the massive extraction of silver from mines like Potosí (in modern-day Bolivia), had a profound impact on the global economy.
• Glory: The desire for national prestige, territorial expansion, and power in the competitive European state system.
• God: The religious zeal to spread Christianity, often used as a moral justification for conquest and subjugation of native populations. The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), brokered by the Pope, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Portugal and Spain, institutionalizing their colonial ambitions.

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COLONIALISATION PROCESS

Latin America

• Latin America was one of the earliest theatres of European colonialism. The term “Latin” refers to the dominance of Spanish and Portuguese, languages derived from Latin.
• Spain established a vast empire, with its most valuable viceroyalties being New Spain (centered in Mexico) and Peru. It controlled a vast swathe of territory from California to Argentina. The Spanish implemented the encomienda system, a grant of indigenous labor to Spanish colonists, which was a brutal form of exploitation.
• Portugal colonized Brazil, which became the world’s leading sugar producer, relying heavily on enslaved African labor.
• Britain also held colonies like Jamaica and later established a foothold in the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas).
• The Philippines, after being a Spanish colony for over 300 years, were ceded to the United States in 1898 following the Spanish-American War, marking the rise of the US as a colonial power.

Africa: The “Scramble for Africa”

• African colonization was a rapid and intense process, primarily occurring between 1881 and 1914.
  • The “Dark Continent”: This European term reflected their profound ignorance of the continent’s interior, its complex societies, and rich history. In 1870, European control was limited to coastal areas and about 10% of the landmass. By 1914, it had surged to over 90%.
  • Lack of Resistance (Initial Phase): The technological gap between European military power (e.g., the Maxim gun) and African societies allowed for swift conquests. However, it is inaccurate to say there was no resistance; numerous revolts occurred, such as the Maji Maji Rebellion (1905-1907) in German East Africa, though they were brutally suppressed.
  • Limited “Positive” Effects: Unlike in some other colonies where the colonial power invested in education and infrastructure to create a subordinate administrative class (like in India), the exploitation in many parts of Africa, such as King Leopold II of Belgium’s personal fiefdom, the Congo Free State, was exceptionally brutal and extractive, focused on resources like rubber and ivory with little to no developmental investment.
  • Arbitrary Boundaries: The most lasting and damaging legacy was the drawing of political boundaries at the Berlin Conference (1884-1885). European powers carved up Africa without any regard for existing ethnic, linguistic, or cultural groups. These artificial borders are a major source of political instability and conflict in post-colonial Africa.
• Key Events and Holdings:
  • France began with the occupation of Algeria in 1830 and later established a vast empire in North and West Africa (Tunisia, Morocco, French Guinea, Ivory Coast).
  • Britain pursued a “Cape to Cairo” vision, controlling territories from Egypt in the north to the Cape Colony (South Africa) in the south, including Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, and Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe).
  • King Leopold II of Belgium initiated the “Scramble” by forming the International African Association in 1876, ostensibly for humanitarian purposes but in reality to claim the vast Congo basin for himself.
  • Germany and Italy, as newly unified nations, were latecomers. Germany acquired Togoland, Cameroons, and German East Africa. Italy, after a humiliating defeat while trying to conquer Ethiopia (Abyssinia) at the Battle of Adwa (1896), eventually occupied Libya and Eritrea.

Asia

• Central Asia (“The Great Game”): This region was the arena of intense rivalry between the British Empire (protecting its interests in India) and the Russian Empire (expanding southwards). Both empires competed for influence in Persia (Iran), Afghanistan, and the khanates of Central Asia, creating zones of influence and buffer states.
• India: It was the “jewel in the crown” of the British Empire. The process involved:
  • Out-competing other European powers: The Portuguese were marginalized early on. The Dutch were defeated by the British at the Battle of Bedara (1759), leading them to focus on their Indonesian colonies. The French challenge ended with their decisive defeat at the Battle of Wandiwash (1760) during the Third Carnatic War.
  • Conquest of Indian powers: The decline of the Mughal Empire created a power vacuum. The defeat of the Maratha Confederacy in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) against Ahmad Shah Abdali weakened the strongest Indian power, facilitating the gradual expansion of the British East India Company’s rule.
• China (Semi-colony): China was never formally colonized but was carved into “spheres of influence” by Western powers and Japan. Through the Opium Wars (1839-42, 1856-60), Britain forced China to accept the opium trade and sign “unequal treaties” (e.g., Treaty of Nanking, 1842), ceding territory (Hong Kong) and opening ports to foreign trade. Other powers followed suit, creating their own zones of influence where they held special economic and political privileges.

By the early 20th century, the process of colonization was largely complete, with the British Empire being the largest in history, covering about a quarter of the world’s land area. The intense rivalries generated by this colonial competition were a primary cause of the First World War.

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UNIFICATION OF ITALY

Background: A “Geographical Expression”

• Before its unification in the mid-19th century, Italy lacked political unity. The Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich, a dominant figure at the Congress of Vienna (1815), famously dismissed Italy as a mere “geographical expression.”
• Political Fragmentation (Post-1815):
  • North-West: The Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, ruled by the native Italian House of Savoy, was the only independent Italian state.
  • North-East: Lombardy and Venetia were directly part of the Austrian Empire. Other duchies like Tuscany, Parma, and Modena were ruled by Austrian-backed Hapsburg princes.
  • Center: The Papal States, including Rome, were under the temporal rule of the Pope.
  • South: The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily) was ruled by the Bourbon dynasty, closely tied to France and Spain.

Factors Responsible for Unification

1. Legacy of the French Revolution and Napoleon:

   • Positive Impact: Napoleon’s invasions (1796-1814) shattered the old feudal order. He introduced modern administrative reforms (the Napoleonic Code), consolidated territories, and created short-lived republics (Cisalpine, Ligurian), giving Italians a taste of political unity and liberal governance. His constant defeat of Austria weakened its grip and demonstrated that it was not invincible.
   • Negative Impact: Napoleon’s rule was also exploitative. He drained Italian resources for his wars, plundered priceless Renaissance art for French museums, and imposed his relatives as rulers (e.g., his brother Joseph Bonaparte as King of Naples). This foreign domination stoked a powerful sense of Italian nationalism and resentment.

2. The Congress of Vienna (1815): By restoring the old, oppressive monarchies and re-establishing Austrian dominance, the Congress created widespread discontent. It turned nationalism and liberalism into revolutionary ideologies. The decision to leave Sardinia-Piedmont as an independent Italian kingdom inadvertently created a nucleus around which the unification movement could coalesce.

3. The Risorgimento and Secret Societies:

   • Risorgimento (meaning “Resurgence”) was an ideological and literary movement that aimed to revive the cultural and political glory of Italy.
   • Giuseppe Mazzini (“The Soul”): A romantic and idealistic republican, Mazzini believed in a popular uprising to create a united, democratic Italian republic. In 1831, he founded the secret society ‘Young Italy’ to spread nationalist ideals among the youth. His revolutionary attempts failed, but his writings and passion inspired a generation of patriots, including Garibaldi.
   • Carbonari (“Charcoal-burners”): An earlier secret society composed of middle-class professionals and workers, they organized revolts in the 1820s and 1830s. Though they failed, they kept the revolutionary spirit alive. Their flag and methods later influenced Italian politics.

4. The Role of Sardinia-Piedmont:

   • After the failure of the 1848 revolutions, where King Charles Albert of Sardinia was defeated by Austria, it became clear that popular uprisings alone were insufficient.
   • Under King Victor Emmanuel II and his brilliant Prime Minister Count Camillo di Cavour (“The Brain”), Sardinia-Piedmont became the engine of unification. Cavour was a pragmatist who believed in strengthening Sardinia’s economy and military and using shrewd diplomacy and foreign alliances to expel Austria.

5. Cavour’s Diplomacy:

   • Crimean War (1853-56): Cavour astutely involved Sardinia on the side of Britain and France against Russia. This earned him no territory but gave him a seat at the Congress of Paris (1856), where he successfully internationalized the “Italian Question,” gaining the sympathy of Britain and, crucially, the attention of French Emperor Napoleon III.
   • Pact of Plombières (1858): Cavour forged a secret alliance with Napoleon III. France agreed to aid Sardinia in a war against Austria to liberate Lombardy and Venetia. In return, France would receive the Sardinian territories of Nice and Savoy. This masterful diplomatic move secured the necessary military power to challenge Austria.

Prelims Pointers

• Imperialism: An ancient concept primarily involving military conquest and extension of political dominion.
• Colonialism: A modern concept linked to the Industrial Revolution, involving economic exploitation and societal transformation of the colony.
• Three Stages of Colonialism: 1. Mercantile Capitalism (Plunder), 2. Industrial Capitalism (Raw Material & Markets), 3. Financial Capitalism (Capital Export).
• Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): Divided the non-European world between Spain and Portugal.
• Early Motives for Colonization: Gold, Glory, and God.
• Latin America: Named for the dominance of Latin-based languages (Spanish, Portuguese). Major Spanish colonies were Mexico (New Spain) and Peru. Major Portuguese colony was Brazil.
• “Scramble for Africa” (c. 1881-1914): Rapid colonization of Africa by European powers.
• King Leopold II: King of Belgium who personally owned the Congo Free State, a site of extreme brutality.
• Berlin Conference (1884-1885): European powers met to regulate the colonization and trade in Africa, leading to its partition.
• Battle of Adwa (1896): Ethiopian forces defeated the invading Italians, a major blow to European colonial ambitions in Africa.
• “The Great Game”: 19th-century geopolitical rivalry between the British and Russian Empires for influence in Central Asia.
• Battle of Bedara (1759): British defeated the Dutch in India.
• Battle of Wandiwash (1760): British decisively defeated the French in India (Third Carnatic War).
• Third Battle of Panipat (1761): Defeat of the Marathas, which indirectly helped the British rise to power.
• China as a Semi-colony: Not directly ruled but dominated through “unequal treaties” and “spheres of influence.”
• Treaty of Nanking (1842): Ended the First Opium War; ceded Hong Kong to Britain.
• Italian Unification: The movement is known as the Risorgimento.
• Klemens von Metternich: Austrian Chancellor who called Italy a “mere geographical expression.”
• Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont: The Italian state that led the unification, ruled by the House of Savoy.
• Key Figures in Italian Unification:
  • Giuseppe Mazzini: “The Soul”; founded the secret society ‘Young Italy’.
  • Count Cavour: “The Brain”; Prime Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont.
  • Giuseppe Garibaldi: “The Sword”; leader of the ‘Redshirts’.
  • King Victor Emmanuel II: The first king of a united Italy.
• Carbonari: An early Italian secret revolutionary society.
• Pact of Plombières (1858): Secret treaty between Cavour (Sardinia) and Napoleon III (France) against Austria.

Mains Insights

Colonialism and Colonisation

• Historiographical Debate: “Civilizing Mission” vs. “Systematic Exploitation”

  • Colonial apologists argued that colonialism was a “civilizing mission” that brought modernity, infrastructure (railways), rule of law, and education to “backward” societies.
  • Nationalist and Marxist historians counter this by arguing that these developments were not benevolent but were instruments for more efficient exploitation. Bipan Chandra argues that colonialism was the primary cause of India’s underdevelopment. The “Drain of Wealth” theory by Dadabhai Naoroji and R.C. Dutt quantifies the economic exploitation. The introduction of Western education created a class of clerks for administration (“a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect” - Macaulay), not a truly enlightened populace.

• Cause and Effect: Industrial Revolution and Nature of Colonialism

  • Cause: The Industrial Revolution in Europe created an insatiable demand for raw materials and markets, which could not be met domestically.
  • Effect: This led to the “New Imperialism” of the 19th century, which was more aggressive and interventionist. The state actively supported capitalists in conquering territories. This resulted in the integration of the world into a single capitalist system, but with a hierarchical structure of a developed “core” (the West) and an underdeveloped “periphery” (the colonies), as explained by Immanuel Wallerstein’s World-Systems Theory.

• Long-term Political and Social Consequences

  • Artificial Borders: In Africa and the Middle East, borders drawn by colonial powers disregarded ethnic and tribal loyalties, sowing the seeds for future civil wars and secessionist movements (e.g., in Nigeria, Rwanda).
  • Economic Dependency: Colonial economic structures, focused on exporting one or two primary commodities, created a legacy of dependency that persists in many post-colonial nations, making them vulnerable to global price fluctuations.
  • Psychological Impact: Thinkers like Frantz Fanon in “The Wretched of the Earth” analyzed the deep-seated psychological trauma and identity crisis inflicted by colonialism on the colonized, leading to a “colonial mentality” and cultural alienation.

Unification of Italy

• Analysis of Leadership: Idealism vs. Pragmatism

  • The Italian unification showcases a fascinating interplay between different leadership styles.
  • Mazzini (Idealism): Represented the romantic, revolutionary path. His goal was a unified republic achieved through a popular mass uprising. While his practical attempts failed, his ideological contribution was immense in creating a national consciousness.
  • Cavour (Pragmatism/Realpolitik): Represented the diplomatic, state-led path. He understood the geopolitical realities and knew that Italy could not be unified without foreign help. His focus on economic modernization and shrewd diplomacy was the key to practical success.
  • Garibaldi (Charisma and Action): Provided the military force and popular appeal that diplomacy alone could not. His conquest of the South was a crucial, if initially unwelcome, development for Cavour, forcing the pace of unification.
  • Conclusion: Unification was the product of all three forces working, sometimes in concert and sometimes in conflict. It was neither purely a top-down diplomatic process nor a purely bottom-up popular revolution.

• Role of Foreign Powers: A Double-Edged Sword

  • Italian unification was impossible without foreign intervention, primarily from France under Napoleon III. French military aid was critical in defeating Austria in 1859.
  • However, this reliance came at a cost. Napoleon III’s motives were self-serving (gaining Nice and Savoy, creating a satellite state). His withdrawal from the war prematurely left Venetia under Austrian control. The presence of a French garrison in Rome to protect the Pope was the main obstacle to its inclusion in Italy until 1870. This highlights a key theme in 19th-century nation-building: the necessity and the danger of foreign patronage.

• Incomplete Unification and its Aftermath

  • The political unification of 1861 was not the end of the story. Venetia was added in 1866 and Rome in 1870.
  • More importantly, it did not solve deep-seated regional divisions. The phrase “We have made Italy. Now we must make Italians” reflects this challenge. A significant North-South divide emerged, with the industrializing, prosperous North and the poor, agrarian, and semi-feudal South (the Mezzogiorno). This economic and cultural gap became a persistent problem for the new Italian state, leading to social unrest and organized crime in the South.